CULTURAL FOOD HABITS

Food functions vary culturally, and each group creates categorizations reflective of their priorities. In the United States, food has been typically classified by food group (as in the Basic Four Food Groups: protein, dairy, cereal and grain, fruits and vegetables), by percentage of important nutrients (as identified in the Recommended Dietary Allowances [RDA] for energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals), or according to recommendations for health. American models, especially the Basic Four Food Groups and, to a lesser extent, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, describe a culture whose members consume significant amounts of milk and milk products.
These categories also suggest that Americans value food more for nutritional content and impact on health than for any symbolic use. But only limited information is provided about U.S. food habits; although these schemes list what foods people eat, they reveal nothing about how, when, or why foods are consumed. Other less explicit categorizations are commonly used by members of each culture and are associated with the meaning of food. Examples of classifications found in both developing and industrialized societies include cultural superfoods, usually staples that have a dominant role in the diet; prestige foods, often protein items or expensive or rare foods; body image foods, believed to influence health, beauty, and wellbeing; sympathetic magic foods, whose traits, through association of color or form, are incorporated; and physiologic group foods, reserved for, or forbidden to, groups with certain physiologic status, such as gender, age, or health condition.
Researchers have proposed numerous models to identify and understand the food habits of different cultures. Some of these categorizations are helpful in understanding the role of food within a culture, including (1) the frequency of food consumption, as described through the core and complementary foods model; (2) the ways in which a culture traditionally prepares and seasons its foods, as examined by flavor principles; (3) the daily, weekly, and yearly use of food, as found in meal patterns and meal cycles; and (4) changes in food functions that emerge during structural growth in a culture, as predicted by the developmental perspective of food culture.

CORE AND COMPLEMENTARY FOODS MODEL

Foods selected by a culture can be grouped according to frequency of consumption. The expanded concept of core foods states that the staples regularly included in a person’s diet, usually on a daily basis, are at the core of food habits. These typically include complex carbohydrates, such as rice, wheat, corn, yams, cassava, taro, or plantains. Foods widely but less frequently eaten are termed secondary foods. These items, such as chicken or lettuce or apples, are consumed once a week or more, but not daily. Foods eaten only sporadically are called peripheral foods. These foods are characteristic of individual food preference, not cultural group habit.
Another version of the model suggests that in many cultures, especially agrarian societies, the core food is always served with fringe, or complementary, items to improve palatability because most starchy staples are bland and uniform in texture, these flavorful substances, eaten in small quantities, encourage consumption of the core food as the bulk of the diet. An added component in this model, sometimes as a complementary food and sometimes as a secondary food, is legumes. It has been hypothesized that these core and complementary food pairings often combine to provide nutritionally adequate meals, especially when legumes are included.
For example, in  where grain is a core food, sources of vitamins A and C are needed to approach sufficiency. Rice, breads and pastas, and corn are frequently prepared with leafy green vegetables, abundant herbs, or tomatoes, which are high in these needed nutrients. Chinese rice with pickled vegetables, Italian noodles with tomato sauce, Mexican corn tortillas with salsa, and Middle Eastern pilaf with parsley and dried fruit are examples. When the core diet is almost adequate nutritionally, the addition of secondary foods, including legumes (soybean products in China; beans or lentils in Italy; red or pinto beans in Mexico; and chickpeas, fava beans, and lentils in the Middle East), small amounts of meats, poultry, fish, and cheeses or yogurt can provide the necessary balance.
Changes in food behaviors are believed to happen most often with peripheral foods and least often with core foods. A person who is willing to omit items that she or he rarely eats is typically much more reluctant to change foods eaten daily and associated with her or his cultural identity. Though little has been reported on the significance of complementary foods in diet modification, presumably, if complementary items were altered or omitted, the core would no longer be palatable. The complementary foods provide the flavor familiarity associated with the core.

FLAVOR PRINCIPLES

The significance of food flavor in a culture cannot be overestimated. The ways foods are prepared and seasoned is second in importance only to the initial selection of ingredients in the development of food habits. It is no less than the transformation of feeding into eating. Foods demonstrate variability according to location. Much is made, for example, of wine terroir—the soil texture, natural minerals, drainage, source of water, sun exposure, average temperature, and other environmental factors in which grapes are grown. Each region and every vineyard are distinctive, often producing appreciable differences in the resulting product.  Yet this variation is insignificant when compared to how foods in general are processed for consumption. Every technique, from preparation for cooking (e.g., washing, hulling or peeling, chopping, pounding, squeezing, soaking, leaching, and marinating) to cooking (e.g., baking, roasting, grilling, stewing, toasting, steaming, boiling, and frying) and preserving (e.g., drying, curing, canning, pickling, fermenting, and freezing), alters the original flavor of the ingredient. Nevertheless, location and manipulation practices alone do not equal cuisine. For that, foods must be seasoned. Historians and scientists speculate there are several reasons why herbs and spices have assumed such an essential role in food habits.
Foremost is palatability. Salt, one of the most widely used seasonings, prompts an innate human taste response. It is enjoyed by most people and physiologically craved by some. Researchers also suggest that the burn of chile peppers (and perhaps other spices) may trigger the release of pleasurable endorphins. Another recurrent theory on the popularity of seasoning early on was to disguise the taste of spoiled meats, though evidence for this is limited. A more plausible assertion is that spices were found effective in preserving meats. A survey of recipes worldwide suggested that the antimicrobial activity of spices accounts for their widespread use, especially in hot climates.
Other researchers speculate that eating chile peppers (and, by extension, other hot seasonings such as mustard, horseradish, and wasabi) is a benign form of risk taking that provides a safe thrill. Additionally, the recurrent use of seasonings may provide the familiarity sought in the omnivore’s dilemma. Theories aside, seasonings can be used to classify cuisines culturally.Unique seasoning combinations, termed flavor principles, typify the foods of ethnic groups worldwide. They are so distinctive that few people mistake their use. For example, a dish flavored with fermented fish sauce shouts Southeast Asian, not Chinese, Norwegian, or Brazilian.  These seasoning combinations are often found in the complementary foods of the core and complementary foods model, providing the flavors associated with the starchy carbohydrates that are the staples of a culture. They usually include herbs, spices, vegetables, and a fat or oil, though many variations exist. A flavor practice in West Africa is tomatoes, onion, and chile peppers that have been sautéed in palm oil. In the Pacific Islands a flavor principle is coconut milk or cream with a little lime juice and salt. Yams taste like West African food when topped with the tomato mixture and like Pacific Islander food when served with the coconut sauce. Some widely recognizable flavor principles include:
1. Asian Indian: garam masala (curry blend of coriander, cumin, fenugreek, turmeric, black pepper, cayenne, cloves, cardamom, and chile peppers)
2. Brazilian (Bahia): chile peppers, dried shrimp, ginger root, and palm oil
3. Chinese: soy sauce, rice wine, and ginger root
4. French: butter, cream, wine, boquet garni (selected herbs, such as tarragon, thyme, and bay leaf)
5. German: sour cream, vinegar, dill, mustard, and black pepper
6. Greek: lemon, onions, garlic, oregano, and olive oil
7. Italian: tomato, garlic, basil, oregano, and olive oil
8. Japanese: soy sauce, sugar, and rice wine vinegar
9. Korean: soy sauce, garlic, ginger root, black pepper, scallions, chile peppers, and sesame seeds or oil
10. Mexican: tomatoes, onions, chile peppers, and cumin
11. Puerto Rican: sofrito (seasoning sauce of tomatoes, onions, garlic, bell peppers, cilantro, capers, pimento, annatto seeds, and lard)
12. Russian: sour cream, onion, dill, and parsley
13. Scandinavian: sour cream, onion, mustard, dill, and caraway
14. Thai: fermented fish sauce, coconut milk,chile peppers, garlic, ginger root, lemon grass, and tamarind
It would be incorrect, however, to assume that every dish from each culture is flavored with its characteristic seasoning combinations. Nor is the seasoning in each culture limited to just those listed. Regional variations are especially prevalent. In China, northern cuisine often includes the flavor principle seasonings enhanced with soybean paste, garlic, and sesame oil. In the south, fermented black beans are frequently added, although in the Szechwan region hot bean paste, chile peppers, or Szechwan (fagara) pepper is more common. In the specialty cuisine of the Hakka, the addition of red rice wine is distinctive. Further, in any culture where the traditional seasoning combinations are prepared at home, not purchased, modifications to suit each family are customary. Flavor principles are therefore more of a marker for each culture’s cuisine than a doctrine.

MEAL PATTERNS AND MEAL CYCLES

People in every culture dine on at least one meal each day. The structural analysis of meal patterns and meal cycles reveals clues about complex social relations and the significance of certain events in a society. The first step in decoding these patterns and cycles is to determine what elements constitute a meal within a culture. In the United States, for instance, cocktails and appetizers or coffee and dessert are not considered meals. A meal contains a main course and side dishes; typically a meat, vegetable, and starch. In the western African nation of Cameroon, a meal is a snack unless cassava paste is served. In many Asian cultures, a meal is not considered a meal unless rice is included, no matter how much other food is consumed. A one-pot dish is considered a meal if it contains all the elements of a full meal. For example, American casserole dishes often feature meat, vegetables, and starch, such as shepherd’s pie (ground beef, green beans, and tomato sauce topped with mashed potatoes) or tuna casserole (tuna, peas, and noodles).
The elements that define a meal must also be served in their proper order. In the United States, appetizers come before soup or salad, followed by the entrée, and then by dessert. In France the salad is served after the entrée. All foods are served simultaneously in Vietnam so that each person may combine flavors and textures according to taste. In addition to considering the proper serving order, foods must also be appropriate for the meal or situation. Some cultures do not distinguish which foods can be served at different meals, but in the United States eggs and bacon are considered breakfast foods, while cheese and olives are popular in the Middle East for the morning meal.  Soup is commonly served at breakfast in Southeast Asia, but in the United States soup is a lunch or dinner food, and in parts of Europe fruit soup is sometimes served as dessert. Cake and ice cream are appropriate for a child’s birthday party in the United States; wine and cheese are not. Other aspects of the meal message include who prepares the meal and what culturally specific preparation rules are used. In the United States ketchup goes with french fries; in Great Britain, vinegar is sprinkled on chips (fried potatoes). Orthodox Jews consume meat only if it has been slaughtered by an approved butcher in an approved manner and has been prepared in a particular way. Who eats the meal is also important. A meal is frequently used to define the boundaries of interpersonal relationships. Americans are comfortable inviting friends for dinner, but they usually invite acquaintances for just drinks and hors d’oeuvres. For a family dinner, people may include only some of the elements that constitute a meal, but serving a meal to guests requires that all elements be included in their proper order. The final element of what constitutes a meal is portion size. In many cultures one meal a day is designated the main meal and usually contains the largest portions. The amount of food considered appropriate varies, however. A traditional serving of beef in China may be limited to one ounce added to a dish of rice. In France, a three- or four ounce filet is more typical. In the United States, a six- or even eight-ounce steak is not unusual, and some restaurants specialize in twelve-ounce cuts of prime rib. American tradition is to clean one’s plate regardless of how much is served, while in other cultures, such as those in the Middle East, it is considered polite to leave some food on the plate to indicate satiety. Beyond the individual meal is the cycle in which meals occur. These include the everyday routine, such as how many meals are usually eaten and when. In much of Europe a large main meal is customarily consumed at noontime, for example, while in most of the United States today the main meal is eaten in the evening. In poor societies only one meal per day may be eaten, whereas in wealthy cultures three or four meals are standard. The meal cycle in most cultures also includes feasting or fasting, and often both. Feasting celebrates special events, occurring in nearly every society where a surplus of food can be accumulated. Religious holidays such as Christmas and Passover; secular holidays such as Thanksgiving and the Vietnamese New Year’s Day, known as Tet; and even personal events such as births, marriages, and deaths are observed with appropriate foods. In many cultures feasting means simply more of the foods consumed daily and is considered a time of plenty when even the poor have enough to eat. Special dishes that include costly ingredients or are time-consuming to prepare also are characteristic of feasting. The elements of a feast rarely differ from those of an everyday meal. There may be more of an everyday food or several main courses with additional side dishes and a selection of desserts, but the meal structure does not change. For example, Thanksgiving typically includes turkey and often another entrée, such as ham or a casserole (meat); several vegetables; bread or rolls, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and stuffing (starch); as well as pumpkin, mincemeat, and pecan pies or other dessert selections. Appetizers, soups, and salads may also be included. Fasting may be partial or total. Often it is just the elimination of some items from the diet, such as the traditional Roman Catholic omission of meat on Fridays or a Hindu personal fast day, when only foods cooked in milk are eaten. Complete fasts are less common. During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims are prohibited from taking food or drink from dawn to sunset, but they may eat in the evening. Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement observed by Jews, is a total fast from sunset to sunset.

DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE OF FOOD CULTURE

The developmental perspective of food culture suggests how social dynamics are paralleled by trends in food, eating, and nutrition. It is useful in conceptualizing broad trends in cultural food habits that emerge during structural changes in a society. Globalization is defined as the integration of local, regional, and national phenomena into an unrestricted worldwide organization. The parallel change in cultural food habits is consumerization, consumer who has limited time (and limited access to dairy cows) but not limited money. Urbanization occurs when a large percentage of the population abandons the low density of rural residence in favor of higher density suburban and urban residence. Often income levels do not change in the move, but families who previously survived on subsistence farming become dependent on others for food. Delocalization occurs when the connections among growing, harvesting, cooking, and eating food are lost, as meals prepared by anonymous workers are purchased from convenience markets and fast-food restaurants.

Finally, migration of populations from their original homes to new regions or nations creates a significant shift from a home-bound, culture bound society to one in which global travel is prevalent and immigration common. Traditional food habits are in flux during acculturation to the diet of a new culture and as novel foods are introduced and accepted into a majority cuisine. Often wholly new traditions emerge from the  between diverse cultural food habits. The developmental perspective of food culture assumes that cultures progress from underdeveloped to developed through the structural changes listed. Deliberate efforts to reverse that trend can be seen in the renewed popularity of farmers’ markets in the United States and attacks on fast-food franchises in Europe. Other evidence of resistance includes the work of the Slow Food movement — mobilizing against the negative effects of industrialization — and the seed banks that have opened throughout the nation to promote genetic diversity and save indigenous plant populations.

By Pamela Goyan Kittler, M.S. & Kathryn P. Sucher, Sc.D., R.D. in "Food and Culture", Thomson Wadsworth, (a part of The Thomson Corporation), U.S.A, 2008, excerpts p.7-12. Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.

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