OBSERVATIONS OF ANCIENT MONGOL LIFE

The Mongols, despite the power, geographical extent, and durability of their empire, are known mainly from the observations made by non-Mongols who either traveled in their territory or worked for them. The following passages come from three such authors. William of Rubruck, a Franciscan friar, journeyed to the court of the Great Khan Mönke in 1253–1255 after living for some period of time in crusader territory in the Middle East. He carried a letter from the French king, Louis IX (ruled 1226–1270), asking that the friar and a companion be allowed to stay with the Mongols, preach Christianity, and comfort German prisoners. William never made contact with the Germans, but his highly personal observations on Mongol life fascinated European readers.

The dwelling in which they sleep is based on a hoop of interlaced branches, and its supports are made of branches, converging at the top around a smaller hoop, from which projects a neck like a chimney. They cover it with white felt: quite often they also smear the felt with chalk or white clay and ground bones to make it gleam whiter, or sometimes they blacken it. ... These dwellings are constructed to such a size as to be on occasion thirty feet across: I myself once measured a breadth of twenty feet between the wheeltracks of a wagon, and when the dwelling was on the wagon it protruded beyond the wheels by at least five feet on either side. I have counted twenty-two oxen to one wagon, hauling along a dwelling, eleven in a row, corresponding to the width of the wagon, and another eleven in front of them. The wagon’s axle was as large as a ship’s mast, and one man stood at the entrance of the dwelling on top of the wagon, driving the oxen. ...
The married women make themselves very fine wagons. ... One rich Mo’al [i.e., Mongol] or Tartar has easily a hundred or two hundred such wagons with chests. Baatu has twenty-six wives, each of whom has a large dwelling, not counting the other, smaller ones placed behind the large one, which are chambers, as it were, where the maids live: to each of these dwellings belong a good two hundred wagons. When they unload the dwellings, the chief wife pitches her residence at the westernmost end, and the others follow according to rank. ... Hence the court of one wealthy Mo’al will have the appearance of a large town, though there will be very few males in it. ...
One woman will drive twenty or thirty wagons, since the terrain is level. The ox - or camel -wagons are lashed together in sequence, and the woman will sit at the front driving the ox, while all the rest follow at the same pace. If at some point the going happens to become difficult, they untie them and take them through one at a time. For they move slowly, at the pace at which a sheep or an ox can walk. "The History of the World-Conqueror" by the Iranian historian ‘Ata-Malik Juvaini, who worked for the Mongols in Iran, was written in elegant Persian during the 1250s. It combines a glorification of the Mongol rulers with an unflinching picture of the cruelties and devastation inflicted by their conquests.
He [i.e., Chingiz-Khan] paid great attention to the chase and used to say that the hunting of wild beasts was a proper occupation for the commanders of armies; and that instruction and training therein was incumbent on warriors and menat- arms. ... Whenever the Khan sets out on the great hunt (which takes place at the beginning of the winter season), he issues orders that the troops stationed around his headquarters and in the neighborhood ... shall make preparation for the chase....
The right wing, left wing and center of the army are drawn up and entrusted to the great emirs; and they set out together with the Royal Ladies and the concubines, as well as provisions of food and drink. For a month, or two, or three they form a hunting ring and drive the game slowly and gradually before them, taking care lest any escape from the ring. ... Finally, when the ring has been contracted to a diameter of two or three parasangs [approximately 7 to 10 miles] they bind ropes together and cast felts over them; while the troops come to a halt all around the ring, standing shoulder to shoulder. The ring is now filled with the cries and commotion of every manner of game and the roaring and tumult of every kind of ferocious beast ... lions becoming familiar with wild asses, hyaenas friendly with foxes, wolves intimate with hares.
When the ring has been so much contracted that the wild beasts are unable to stir, first the Khan rides in together with some of his retinue; then after he has wearied of the sport, they dismount upon high ground in the center ... to watch the princes likewise entering the ring, and after them, in due order, the noyans [chiefs], the commanders and the troops. Several days pass in this manner; then, when nothing is left of the game but a few wounded and emaciated stragglers, old men and greybeards humbly approach the Khan, offer up prayers for his well-being and intercede for the lives of the remaining animals asking that they be suffered to depart to someplace nearer to grass and water ...
Now war—with its killing, counting of the slain and sparing of the survivors — is after the same fashion, and indeed analogous in every detail, because all that is left in the neighborhood of the battlefield are a few broken-down wretches. Hu Szu-hui, a physician of Chinese-Turkic family background, presented the Yuan emperor with a manual entitled "Proper and Essential Things for the Emperor’s Food and Drink" in 1330. His work reflects both the meat-heavy diet of the steppes and traditional Chinese concern with good nutrition.

Foods That Cure Various Illnesses [60 entries]

Donkey’s Head Gruel

It cures apoplexy-vertigo, debility of hand and foot, annoying pain of extremities, and trouble in speaking: Black donkey’s head (one; remove hair and wash clean), black pepper (two measures), tsaoko cardamom (two measures). Cook ingredients until overcooked. Add the five spices in fermented black bean juice. Flavor with the spices. Flavor evenly. Eat on an empty stomach.

Donkey’s Meat Soup

It cures wind, mania and depression and pacifies the heart: Meat of black donkey. (The quantity does not matter. Cut up.) Cook ingredient until overcooked in fermented black beans. When done add the five spices. Eat on an empty stomach.

Fox Meat Gruel

It cures infantile convulsion, epilepsy, spiritual confusion,indistinct speech, and inappropriate singing and laughing: Fox meat. (The quantity does not matter. Include organ meat.) [To] ingredient add the five spices according to the regular method. Cook until overcooked. When done eat on an empty stomach.

Bear Meat Gruel

It cures the various winds, foot numbness-insensitivity, and five flaccidities, tendon and muscle spasms: Bear meat (one measure). [To] ingredient add the five spices in fermented black beans. [Add] onions and sauce. Cook. When done eat on an empty stomach.

Foodstuffs That Mutually Conflict [55 entries]

. Horse meat cannot be eaten together with granary rice.
. Horse meat cannot be eaten with cocklebur. It can be eaten with ginger.
. Pork cannot be eaten together with beef.
. Sheep’s liver cannot be eaten together with pepper. It wounds the heart.
. Hare meat cannot be eaten together with ginger.
. Beef cannot be eaten together with chestnuts.
. Mare’s milk cannot be eaten together with fish hash. It produces obstruction of the bowels.
. Venison cannot be eaten together with catfish.
. Beef stomach cannot be eaten together with dog meat. Quail meat cannot be eaten together with pork. The face will turn black.
. Pheasant eggs cannot be eaten together with onions. It produces vermin.
. Meat of sparrows cannot be eaten together with plums.
. Eggs cannot be eaten together with turtle meat.

By Richard W. Bulliet-(Columbia University), Pamela Kyle Crossley- (Dartmouth College), Daniel R. Headrick- (Roosevelt University), Steven W. Hirsch- (Tufts University), Lyman L. Johnson- (University of North Carolina—Charlotte) & David Northrup- (Boston College) in the book "The Earth and Its Peoples"- A Global History, Wadsworth (Cengage Learning), U.S.A.,2011, excerpts p.170-171. Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.

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