THE MAKING OF MODERN AFRICA TIMELINE
1914 East Africa
Defeat of British forces at Tanga in East Africa by German forces; beginning of protracted guerrilla war in East Africa.
1915 South West
Africa Defeat of German forces in South West Africa.
1916 East Africa
General Smuts leads British conquest of East Africa.
1917 East Africa
German forces from East Africa under Lettow-Vorbeck driven into Mozambique.
1918 Northern Rhodesia
Lettow-Vorbeck invades Northern Rhodesia but hostilities halted by armistice.
1918 Africa
First Pan-African Congress convened in Paris by W.E.B.du Bois and Blaise Diagne.
1919 Rhodesia
Rhodesian Native National Congress formed.
1919 South Africa
Strikes organized in the Rand (South Africa).
1920 West Africa
National Congress of British West Africa formed.
1920 Kenya/Uganda
British East Africa divided into colony of Kenya and Uganda protectorate.
1921 Morocco
Abd el Krim defeats Spanish army of 11,000 men under General Silvestre in Spanish Morocco at battle of Anual, and assumes title of Emir.
1922 Morocco
Abd el Krim proclaims ‘Rif Republic’, is elected President, and sets up an elected Chamber and Council of Ministers.
1922 Kenya
Riots in Kenya over the expulsion of Harry Thuku, leader of the East African Association.
1923 Africa
Second Pan-African Congress.
1923 Nigeria
Nigerian National Democratic Party founded under Herbert Macaulay.
1923 Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia becomes a self-governing colony.
1924 Morocco
Spanish launch offensive against Rif Republic with army of 100,000 men and air force; Abd el Krim defeats Spanish at battle of Sidi Messaoud. General rising in Spanish Morocco. Peace talks break down when Abd el Krim demands complete Spanish evacuation of Morocco, complete independence and the title of Sultan.
1924 Kenya
Kikuyu Central Association comes into being in Kenya to represent grievances of Kikuyu people.
1925 Fr. Morocco
Abd el Krim attacks French-protected Beni Zeroual tribe and comes into conflict with French forces defending French Morocco. French forces under Marshal Lyautey prevent Rif forces from taking Fez and Taza.
1926 Morocco
Franco-Spanish military agreement reached to co-ordinate suppression of Rif revolt. Franco-Spanish forces reduce Rif fortifications and take Targuist, Abd el Krim’s headquarters. Abd el Krim surrenders to the French and is exiled to Reunion.
1927 Africa
Third Pan-African Congress.
1928 Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta becomes general secretary of the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA).
1928 Senegal/Fr. Colonies
Lamine Gueye campaigns for extension of full French citizenship to all its African subjects; forms Parti Socialiste Senegalais at Dakar.
1933 Kenya
Split in Kenyan KCA when Thuku forms Kikuyu Provincial Association.
1934 Ethiopia
Incident at Wal Wal oasis on border between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland heightens tension between Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and Italy.
1935 Ethiopia
Italy invades Ethiopia.
1936 Ethiopia
Italian forces occupy Addis Ababa.
1937 Tunisia
Rising in Tunisia against French rule.
1940 Somaliland
Britain evacuates Somaliland following Italian invasion.
1940 Kenya
Leaders of Kenyan tribal associations detained.
1941 Ethiopia
British forces begin to occupy Italian East Africa.
1944 Fr. Colonies
Free French hold Brazzaville Conference to discuss future of French possessions in Africa.
1944 Nigeria
Formation of Nigerian NCNC (Aug.); Richards proposals for a Nigerian constitution (Sept.).
1945 Buganda
Rioting in Buganda (later part of Uganda).
1945 Algeria
Nationalist demonstration at Setif in Algeria leads to rioting which is suppressed by French authorities — the ‘Setif massacre’.
1945 Nigeria
Nigerian strike.
1945 Africa
Egypt, Liberia, Ethiopia and South Africa join the United Nations as founder members. Fifth Pan-African Congress held in Manchester. Arab League founded in Cairo.
1946 Gold Coast
Gold Coast Constitution published and becomes first British colony to have an African majority on legislative council (March); Nkrumah attends Fabian Conference at Clacton, England (Apr.).
1946 Nigeria
Tour of Nigeria by NCNC leaders.
1946 Algeria
Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés Democratiques founded by Nessali Hadj in Algeria.
1946 Fr. Colonies
French abolish forced labour in the colonies; by Loi Lamine-Gueye French citizenship extended to all inhabitants of overseas territories. Fonds d’Investissement pour le Developpement Economique et Social (FIDES) set up by France for development of the colonies.
1946 Africa
Rassemblement Democratique Africain (RDA) founded by Bamako Congress.
1947 Nigeria
New Constitution for Nigeria with African majority on the legislature.
1947 Madagascar
Nationalist insurrection in Madagascar.
1947 Gold Coast
United Gold Coast Convention founded by Dr J.B. Danquah; Kwame Nkrumah appointed Secretary.
1947 Tanganyika
Groundnut scheme begun in Tanganyika.
1948 Gold Coast
Boycott of European goods in Gold Coast and riots in Accra (Feb.); Watson Report (June).
1948 Cameroon
Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) formed.
1948 Egypt
Egyptian war with Israel begins.
1948 South Africa
Smuts defeated by Malan in South African election. National Party begins implementation of apartheid policy.
1948 Tunisia
Bourguiba returns to Tunis.
1948 Senegal
Bloc Democratique Senegalais founded.
1948 Zanzibar
General Strike in Zanzibar.
1949 Gold Coast
Convention People’s Party (CPP) founded in Gold Coast by Nkrumah (June); British Cabinet accepts Coussey report on Gold Coast (Oct.).
1949 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
Victoria Falls Conference in favour of federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland; African opposition to proposed federation.
1949 Buganda
Riots in Buganda.
1949 Gold Coast
British Cabinet accepts Coussey report on Gold Coast.
1949 Nigeria
Industrial disturbances and shootings at Enugu colliery and riots in southern Nigeria.
1949 Somalia
United Nations decide that Britain should return Somalia to Italy as a United Nations’ trust territory for 10 years.
1949 Ivory Coast
Widespread disturbances in Ivory Coast.
1950 Gold Coast
‘Positive Action’ policy in Gold Coast.
1950 South Africa
Apartheid laws passed in South Africa.
1950 S.W. Africa
International Court rules that South West Africa should remain under United Nations’ trusteeship.
1950 Congo
Association des Bakongas (Abako) formed in Belgian Congo.
1950 Nigeria
Action Group formed in Nigeria.
1950 Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP) founded by Milton Margai.
1951 Gold Coast
Gold Coast constitution becomes operative (Jan.); CPP wins General Election in Gold Coast; Nkrumah becomes ‘leader of government business’ (Feb.).
1951 Nigeria
Macpherson constitution enacted in Nigeria.
1951 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
Victoria Falls Conference on Central African Federation; British government accepts idea of a federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
1951 Sierra Leone
Elections in Sierra Leone; Milton Margai in office.
1951 Libya
Libya becomes an independent kingdom.
1952 Gold Coast
Kwame Nkrumah becomes Prime Minister of the Gold Coast.
1952 Egypt
Army coup in Egypt; committee of ‘Free Officers’ forces King Farouk to abdicate; General Neguib takes power.
1952 Ethiopia
Eritrea federated with Ethiopia.
1952 Kenya
Following increased violence in Kikuyuland, ‘Mau Mau’ Emergency proclaimed.
1952 South Africa
All non-whites compelled to carry passes in South Africa; non-white political organizations launch ‘passive resistance’ campaign against apartheid; leaders arrested.
1953 South Africa
Emergency powers introduced by the South African government against passive resistance; new racial laws introduced.
1953 Sudan
Anglo-Egyptian agreement on the Sudan.
1953 Egypt
Egypt becomes a republic; Party of National Liberation under Neguib becomes Egypt’s sole political party.
1953 Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta and five others convicted of managing ‘Mau Mau’ in Kenya.
1953 Gold Coast
Nkrumah announces ‘Motion of Destiny’.
1953 Nigeria
Nigerian Constitutional Conference held in London.
1953 Morocco
French deport Mohamed V from Morocco.
1953 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland created.
1953 Tanganyika
Julius Nyerere elected President of Tanganyika African Association.
1953 Morocco
Franco deposes the Sultan of Morocco.
1954 Egypt
Colonel Nasser seizes power in Egypt.
1954 Nigeria
Nigerian Constitutional Conference in Lagos (Jan.). Federal system of government formalized by Lyttleton Constitution (Oct.).
1954 Gold Coast
CPP wins elections in Gold Coast and Britain promises independence.
1954 Tanganyika
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) formed with Julius Nyerere as President.
1954 Egypt
Anglo-Egyptian agreement on the evacuation of Suez Canal Zone.
1954 Algeria
Beginning of Algerian War of Independence.
1955 Africa
Bandung Conference in Indonesia.
1955 Morocco
Moroccan Army of Liberation attacks French posts in West Algeria (Aug.); King Mohamed V restored to throne by French (Nov.).
1955 Sudan
Beginning of armed rebellion in South Sudan.
1956 Sudan
Sudan becomes an independent Republic.
1956 Algeria
Violent settler demonstrations in Algiers.
1956 Fr. Colonies
Deferre introduces loi cadre providing for local autonomy in Black African territories.
1956 Morocco/Tunisia
France recognizes independence of Morocco and Tunisia.
1956 Egypt
Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal (July); Egypt-Israel war and British and French landings at Suez (Nov.).
1956 Cameroon
Civil War in Cameroon.
1956 Algeria/Nigeria
Oil discovered in Algeria and Nigeria.
1956 Northern Rhodesia
State of emergency declared in Northern Rhodesia after miners’ strike in the copper belt.
1956 Port Guinea and Cape Verde
African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) founded.
1956 Angola
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) founded.
1957 Gold Coast/Ghana
Gold Coast becomes independent as Ghana.
1957 Nigeria
Second London conference on Nigerian constitution; eastern and western regions of Nigeria become selfgoverning.
1957 Fr. West Africa
Houphouet-Boigny President of Grand Council of French West Africa.
1957 Sierra Leone
SLPP wins general election in Sierra Leone.
1957 Tunisia
Bey of Tunis deposed; Tunisia becomes a republic.
1957 Africa
Afro-Asian Solidarity Conference in Cairo.
1958 Tunisia
French military raids into Tunisia.
1958 Togo
Togo becomes independent.
1958 Nyasaland
Dr Hastings Banda returns to Nyasaland.
1958 Fr. Colonies
General de Gaulle advocates a federation with internal autonomy for French overseas territories as the French Community; at Brazzaville he announces independence for French Africa.
1958 Algeria
Algerian provisional government set up in Cairo.
1958 Guinea
Guinea becomes independent with Sekou Touré as President; all other French African territories remain within French Community.
1958 Sudan
Military coup led by General Abboud overthrows Sudanese government.
1959 Nyasaland
State of Emergency declared in Nyasaland; Dr Banda imprisoned.
1959 Libya
Oil discovered in Libya.
1959 Nigeria
Northern Region of Nigeria becomes self-governing.
1959 Africa
Saniquellé meeting of Presidents Nkrumah, Tubman and Touré to plan union of free African states.
1959 Congo
Riots in Belgian Congo.
1959 Fr. Colonies
Senegal and Sudan demand independence and bring about the end of the French Community.
1960 Africa
Harold Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech in Cape Town. French atomic device exploded in the Sahara.
1960 South Africa
Demonstration on 21 Mar. at Sharpeville fired on by South African police; 67 Africans killed.
1960 Congo
Belgian Congo becomes independent; Force publique mutinies; United Nations troops sent into Congo.
1960 Tanganyika
TANU wins election in Tanganyika and Julius Nyerere becomes Chief Minister.
1960 Nigeria
Nigeria becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1960 Namibia
SWAPO (South West African People’s Organization) founded.
1961 Algeria
Armed forces announce that they have taken over control of Algeria; OAS terrorism begins. Algerian peace talks begin in Evian, France.
1961 Congo
Lumumba, the Premier, murdered in Katanga.
1961 Angola
Rebellion begins in Angola against the Portuguese.
1961 Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1961 South Africa
South Africa becomes a republic and leaves the Commonwealth.
1961 Tanganyika
Tanganyika becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1961 Rhodesia
Rhodesia Front party formed.
1962 Rwanda/Burundi
Rwanda and Burundi become independent.
1961 Ghana
Plots against President Nkrumah’s life in Ghana.
1961 Uganda
Uganda becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1961 Algeria
Algerian independence agreed to at end of Evian peace talks.
1961 N. Rhodesia
First African government formed in Northern Rhodesia.
1961 Mozambique
Frelimo headquarters set up in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanganyika.
1963 Congo
End of Katanga secession in Congo.
1963 Togo
President Olympio killed in Togo coup.
1963 Africa
Organization of African Unity (OAU) formed in Addis Ababa by 30 heads of state.
1963 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
End of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
1963 Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta becomes Prime Minister of Kenya.
1963 Zanzibar
Zanzibar becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1963 Tunisia
French evacuate the naval base at Bizerta, Tunisia.
1963 Kenya
Kenya becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1964 Rwanda
Massacre of Tutsi in Rwanda.
1964 Zanzibar
Revolution in Zanzibar; Sultan overthrown and Karume becomes President.
1964 East Africa
Army mutinies in Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda; British troops called in to help restore order.
1964 Tanganyika
Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar as Tanzania.
1964 South Africa
Rivonia trial in South Africa; Nelson Mandela, nationalist leader, sentenced to life imprisonment.
1964 Congo
Tshombe becomes President of Congo; revolts in Congo provinces; Belgian parachutists land at Stanleyville and elsewhere to rescue Europeans.
1964 Malawi/Zambia
Malawi and Zambia become independent states within the Commonwealth.
1964 Mozambique
Frelimo begins armed struggle against Portuguese in Mozambique.
1965 Fr. Colonies
Organisation Commune Africaine et Malagache (OCAM) formed at conference of French-speaking heads of state at Nouakchott.
1965 Tanzania
Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai), the Chinese Premier, visits Tanzania; one-party state adopted in Tanzania.
1965 S. Rhodesia
Rhodesia Front party wins general election in Southern Rhodesia; Ian Smith declares Rhodesia’s ‘unilateral declaration of independence’ (UDI); UN Security Council embargo placed on Rhodesia.
1965 Congo
General Mobutu takes over complete power in Congo.
1966 Africa
Commonwealth Conference in Lagos.
1966 Nigeria
First military coup in Nigeria led by Ibo officers; a countercoup follows 6 months later.
1966 Ghana
President Nkrumah deposed by military and police coup in
Ghana.
1966 Uganda
Milton Obote seizes the Kabaka’s palace in Kampala and makes Uganda into a centralized state.
1966 Botswana
Botswana becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1966 Congo
Union Minière du Haut-Katanga taken over by Congo government.
1967 Tanzania
Arusha Declaration issued in Tanzania.
1967 Sierra Leone
Two army coups in Sierra Leone.
1967 Egypt
Arab–Israeli ‘Six Day War’; Israelis occupy Sinai and
defeat Egypt.
1967 Congo
Uprising in eastern and northern Congo ended by foreign mercenaries employed by Gen. Mobutu’s central government.
1967 E. Africa
East African Community established by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
1967 Nigeria
Secession of Eastern Region as independent state of Biafra; beginning of civil war in Nigeria.
1968 Malawi
Malawi establishes diplomatic relations with South Africa.
1968 Rhodesia
Start of guerrilla war in Rhodesia.
1968 Nigeria
Tanzania, Ivory Coast and two other African states recognize Biafran independence.
1968 Eq. Guinea
Equatorial Guinea becomes independent of Spain.
1968 Mali
Military coup in Mali.
1968 Swaziland
Swaziland becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1969 Libya
King Idris deposed by a military coup in Libya; Colonel Gadhafi comes to power.
1969 Ghana
General election in Ghana returns Dr Busia as Prime Minister. Ghana expels thousands of aliens.
1969 Kenya
Serious political disturbances in western Kenya.
1970 Nigeria
End of Nigerian civil war.
1970 Libya
British withdrawal from military bases in Libya.
1970 Uganda
President Obote’s ‘Common Man’s Charter’ introduced in Uganda.
1970 Tanzania
Chinese offer aid to Tanzania to build railway from Dares-Salaam to Zambian copper belt.
1970 Egypt
Aswan High Dam in Egypt comes into operation.
1971 Uganda
General Amin leads military coup which overthrows President Obote of Uganda.
1971 South Africa
Central African Republic recognizes South Africa and receives economic aid from it.
1971 Congo/Zaire
Congo renamed Zaire.
1971 South Africa
Declaration of Mogadishu issued by eastern and central African states stating their intention to continue the armed struggle to liberate South Africa.
1971 S. Rhodesia
African National Council (ANC) formed in Rhodesia by Bishop Muzorewa.
1972 Zaire
‘African authenticity’ campaign launched by President Mobutu in Zaire.
1972 Ghana
Army coup in Ghana; General Acheampong overthrows Busia government.
1972 S. Rhodesia
Pearce Commission in Rhodesia reports an overwhelming ‘no’ by African population to settlement proposals.
1972 Uganda
President Amin begins to expel Asians from Uganda.
1972 Sudan
Agreement in Sudan on ‘southern problem’; regional autonomy granted to the south.
1972 Burundi
Huto rising in Burundi suppressed with great loss of life.
1972 Madagascar
Military coup in Madagascar.
1973 S. Rhodesia/Zambia
Zambia-Rhodesia border closed by President Kaunda.
1973 South Africa
Serious strikes by black workers in South Africa.
1973 S. Rhodesia
Prime Minister Smith of Rhodesia begins talks with African nationalists in an attempt to find some form of internal settlement.
1973 Egypt
Israel–Egypt war; Egyptian troops retake part of Sinai.
1973 Africa
Oil crisis brings great increase in prices for African states.
1973 Ethiopia
Widespread drought in Ethiopia.
1974 Ethiopia
Emperor Haile Selassie overthrown by a military coup; Dergue established to rule the country.
1974 Portuguese Colonies
Coup in Lisbon by army officers disillusioned with the African wars brings down the Caetano regime and begins the process of decolonization in the Portuguese empire in Africa.
1974 Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau becomes independent.
1975 Africa Lomé Agreement signed between EEC and 37 African states.
1975 West Africa
Economic Community of West African States (Ecowas) Treaty signed by 15 states.
1975 Portuguese Colonies
Portugal’s withdrawal from Africa; independence for Cape Verde Islands, São Tomé and Principé. Mozambique (June) and Angola (Nov.). Civil war in Angola.
1975 Zambia/Tanzania
Tanzam railway officially opened between Zambia and Tanzania.
1975 S. Rhodesia
Four ‘front-line’ presidents at Quilemane pledge support for the Zimbabwe National Liberation Army.
1975 Nigeria
General Murtala Mohamed, President of Nigeria, assassinated in Lagos.
1975 Angola
South African troops invade Angola in support of UNITA forces.
1976 South Africa
Soweto riots and boycotts. Over 700 dead by 1977.
1976 Spanish Morocco
Spain withdraws from Western Sahara; territory partitioned between Morocco and Mauritania. Proclamation of Sahara Arab Democratic Republic, which through its armed Polisario Front wages a guerrilla war against both occupying states.
1976 South Africa
South Africa declares Transkei independent.
1976 Ethiopia
‘Palace coup’ in Addis Ababa.
1977 Djibouti
Djibouti became an independent state; final withdrawal of France from African territory.
1977 Zaire
Invasion of Shaba province, Zaire, by Katangese rebels.
1977 Ethiopia
Somali-supported forces invade Ogaden; serious fighting in the region. Cuban aid to Ethiopia in the war.
1977 Central African Rep.
Central African Empire proclaimed by Bokassa.
1977 Ethiopia
Widespread purge in Ethiopia by the Dergue.
1977 Nigeria
Constituent Assembly meets in Nigeria in preparation for a return to civilian government.
1978 Tunisia
Serious strikes in Tunisia.
1978 S. Rhodesia Internal agreement in Rhodesia; transitional government formed.
1978 Ethiopia/Somalia
Somali forces defeated by Ethiopia in Ogaden war; Ethiopia steps up its attacks on Eritrean nationalist forces.
1978 Guinea
Reconciliation of Guinea with France.
1978 Uganda
Uganda invasion of Kagera salient in north-west Tanzania.
1978 South Africa
‘Muldergate’ scandal in South Africa.
1978 Ghana
Gen. Acheampong deposed in Ghana.
1979 Tanzania/Uganda
Tanzania supports Ugandan Liberation Front in invasion of Uganda; President Amin overthrown.
1979 Central African Rep.
Emperor Bokassa overthrown and Central African Republic re-established.
1979 Eq. Guinea
President Macias Nguema of Equatorial Guinea overthrown.
1979 Ghana
Junior officers coup in Ghana led by Flight-Lt Rawlings; three former heads of state executed.
1979 Ghana/Nigeria
Elections in Ghana and Nigeria return both countries to civilian rule.
1979 S. Rhodesia/Zimbabwe
Lancaster House talks in London on a settlement for Zimbabwe; the country reverts to British rule for transitional period.
1980 Zimbabwe
Elections in Zimbabwe result in an overwhelming victory for Robert Mugabe’s ZANU-PF party. Mugabe becomes Prime Minister of an independent Zimbabwe.
1980 Liberia
Military coup in Liberia by junior army officers.
1980 Uganda
Military-backed coup in Uganda deposes President Binaisa; Dr Obote winner in first Ugandan elections for 18 years.
1980 Tunisia/Libya
Tension between Tunisia and Libya after clashes at Gafsa.
1980 Chad
Unrest in Chad leaves 700 dead.
1981 Zimbabwe
Serious clashes between ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrilla forces.
1981 Egypt
President Sadat of Egypt assassinated in Cairo; vice-president Hosni Mubarrak becomes president.
1981 Gambia
Coup in Gambia fails when British SAS free hostages held by rebels.
1982 Uganda
Further coup fails in Uganda.
1982 South Africa
Dr Treurnicht launches ultra-right-wing Conservative Party in South Africa.
1982 Kenya
Army coup in Kenya foiled.
1982 Lesotho
South African raid on Lesotho.
1982 Upper Volta
Army coup in Upper Volta.
1983 Chad
French troops sent to Chad to resist Libyan invasion.
1983 Ethiopia
Serious drought and famine in Ethiopia, affecting between 2 and 4 million people; worldwide mobilization of aid.
1984 Nigeria
Major General Buhari takes power in Nigeria.
1984 Mozambique/South Africa
Mozambique government signs peace accord with South Africa.
1984 Nigeria
Serious religious riots in Yola, northern Nigeria.
1984 Chad
French and Libyan forces agree to evacuate Chad.
1984 South Africa
P.W.Botha returned to power as President of South Africa; new tri-racial Parliament opened.
1985 Uganda
President Obote overthrown by army coup in Uganda. Major-General Okello sworn in as country’s new leader.
1985 Nigeria
Further coup in Nigeria.
1985 South Africa
Emergency legislation in South Africa; hundreds detained and many killed following serious violence and school boycotts. Press reporting restricted. Botha promises reform but at own pace.
1985 Sudan
Sudanese army seizes power deposing President Nimeiri.
1985 South Africa/Namibia
South African troops withdraw from southern Angola; an independent government to be set up in Namibia.
1986 Uganda
Yoweri Museveni backed by the National Resistance Army overthrows President Okello in Uganda.
1986 South Africa
South African backed coup in Lesotho; South African raids into Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana. Widespread boycotts and violence lead to state of emergency; hundreds killed by government forces and in communal violence; over eight thousand detained. US applies trade sanctions and disinvestment by US companies begins.
1986 Mozambique
President Machel of Mozambique killed in plane crash; succeeded by Joachim Chissano.
1986 Libya
US air attack on Libya for complicity with terrorism.
1987 Tunisia
President Habib Bourguiba overthrown in Tunisia.
1988 South Africa
Nelson Mandela moved into hospital accommodation. ‘Free Nelson Mandela’ campaign intensifies.
1989
Sudan Coup in Sudan.
1989 Namibia
Agreement on future independence of Namibia; UN peacekeeping force supervises departure of SWAPO guerrillas and South African forces.
1989 South Africa
Botha suffers stroke. De Klerk President following narrow victory in general election. Several killed during boycott and demonstrations during elections.
1990 South Africa
30-year ban on ANC lifted; final release from Victor Verster prison, Cape Town, of Nelson Mandela (11 Feb.). Preliminary talks on future of South Africa between de Klerk and ANC delegation (May).
1990 Namibia
Namibia achieves independence (20 Mar.), becoming 50th member of Commonwealth and 160th member of United Nations.
1990 Nigeria
Coup attempt by junior officers failed (Apr.).
1990 Liberia
Civil war in Liberia. The rebels seize and murder President Doe (Sept.).
1990 Tanzania
After holding the position of head of state (1985), Ali Hassan Mwinyi takes leadership of the Tanzanian Revolutionary Party over from Nyerere.
1990 Rwanda
Tutsi guerrillas from neighbouring Uganda break into the country in order to overthrow the Hutu majority government in power (Oct.).
1990 Chad
The rebels, led by General Idriss Deby, overthrow President Hissène Habré who has been in power since 1982 (Dec.).
1991 Somalia
President Mohamed Siad Barra, who came to power in Oct. 1969 with a military coup, is forced to flee from the country because of an armed uprising (Jan.). Northern Somalian separatists proclaim the Republic of Somaliland (its border identical to the former British Somalia) (May).
1991 Angola
The last Cuban soldier leaves the territory of the country. In Lisbon, a ‘final’ ceasefire agreement is signed by the leader of MPLA, José E.dos Santos, and the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi (May).
1991 Ethiopia
President Mengistu resigns and flees from the country. The dissident armed forces seize the capital (May); Meles Zenawi, the leader of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front, forms a provisional government (June). An agreement is reached between the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front and the new Ethiopian government that a plebiscite will be held in two years on the issue of the independence of Eritrea (July).
1991 Africa
In the Nigerian town of Abuja, heads of state of the Organization of African Unity sign a treaty (June) for creating an African Economic Community by 2025.
1991 Zaire
President Mobutu allows a multi-party system and, as a result of the rebellions, he appoints the leader of the opposition, Etienne Tshisekedi, as Prime Minister (Oct.).
1991 Zambia
At the multi-party elections held for the first time after 18 years, the opposition Movement for a Multi-party Democracy wins against the United National Independence Party, led by President Kaunda. The new President is Frederick Chiluba (Nov.).
1991 Nigeria
Disturbances and bloody religious clashes between Christians and Muslims (Nov.).
1992 Algeria
After the first round of the multi-party parliamentary elections, the fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front achieves a landslide victory (Dec. 1991); the election process is suspended (12 Jan.). A 5-member Supreme State Council takes over powers of head of state from the resigned President Chadli Bendjedid. The head of this state council is Mohammed Budiaf (15 Jan.). After a ban on the FIS (Mar.), civil war threatens the country. Budiaf is assassinated (29 June). The new state council chairman is Ali Khafi.
1992 Tanzania
The Executive Committee of the Tanzanian Revolutionary Party accepts a resolution to introduce a multi-party system (Jan.).
1992 Libya
The UN Security Council orders economic sanctions against Libya after it rejected the extradition of Libyan terrorists (Apr.).
1992 Sierra Leone
A military coup overthrows President Joseph Momoh, who has been in power since 1985. The new head of state is the President of the National Provisional Governing Council, Captain Valentine Strasser (May).
1992 Angola
The parliamentary and presidential elections are won by the MPLA and former President dos Santos (Sept.). UNITA declares the outcome fraudulent and fighting flares up once again.
1992 Madagascar
The third unsuccessful coup attempt within 3 years takes place against the political regime of President Didier Ratsiraka (July).
1992 Mozambique
In Rome an agreement on the discontinuation of the 15-year-long civil war is signed by President Chissano and the leader of the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO), Alfonso Dhlakama (Oct.).
1992 Ghana
The first Presidential elections since 1979 are won by the President-in-Office, Rawlings (Nov.).
1992 Africa
An international conference is held to provide support for starving African children (Nov.).
1992 Somalia
Under the auspices of the UN, a large-scale humanitarian and military aid-action (Operation ‘New Hope’) is organized in order to revitalize the country devastated by civil war and famine (Aug.). The landing of 28,000 US troops begins (Dec.).
1992 Kenya
The first multi-party parliamentary and presidential elections held in 26 years are won by the governing party KANU and President Daniel Arap Moi (Dec.).
1993 Zaïre
Military rebellion breaks out in the capital (Jan.). President Mobutu appoints Faustin Birindwa as Prime Minister (Mar.).
1993 Madagascar
The Presidential election is won by the opposition’s candidate, Albert Zafy (Mar.).
1993 Niger
The first free Presidential election is won by the opposition Social Democrats’ candidate, Mahamane Ousmane (Mar.).
1993 Eritrea
On the basis of 95% of the votes of its population (Apr.), Eritrea separates from Ethiopia and becomes an independent republic (May). Its first President is the leader of the EPLF, Isajas Afeverki.
1993 Somalia
Troops arrive from 20 member states of the UN, replacing the American soldiers (May). The clashes with armed gangs who control a great part of the country become more and more serious.
1993 Malawi
At a plebiscite, the population votes for the introduction of a multi-party system (June).
1993 Egypt
Mubarak is elected as President for the third time (June). Terrorist attacks by Islamic extremists become increasingly frequent, resulting in a dramatic decrease in the tourist industry.
1993 Nigeria
The military leadership denounces the results of the presidential election (June), yet President Babangida still renounces power to a civilian government (Aug.). Ernest Shonekan is soon replaced by General Sani Abacha, who dissolves all the democratically elected institutions and establishes the Provisional Governing Council (Nov).
1993 Liberia
In Benin the representatives of the provisional government and various armed groups sign a peace treaty ordering an end to the war and announcing multi-party elections (July).
1993 Rwanda
A peace treaty is signed ordering the end of civil war (Aug.). In order to ensure that the treaty is observed, UN forces arrive in the country (Nov.).
1993 Togo
In an election boycotted by the opposition, General Eyadéma, who has been in power since 1967, is elected.
1993 Burundi
During an unsuccessful coup attempt by Tutsi officers, President Melchior Ndadaye, who has been in power since June as a result of the first multi-party elections in the country’s history, is assassinated (21 Oct.).
1993 South Africa
At the CODESA negotiations an agreement is reached on the draft of an apartheid-free constitution, thus ending the rule of the white minority.
1994 Algeria
Failure of conference on transition to democracy (Jan.) when boycotted by all major parties leads to escalating terrorism and civil war.
1994 Ghana
In widespread ethnic disorder, over 1,000 killed (Feb.).
1994 Kenya
Death of Mr Odinga, leader of Kenyan opposition (Jan.); economic reforms launched to encourage foreign investment.
1994 Zimbabwe
New opposition party formed (Jan.); exposure of corruption stemming from compulsory land purchase in 1992 by government officials (Mar.–May).
1994 Mozambique
All-party defence force set up as part of process of reconciliation (Aug.). Multi-party elections lead to narrow victory for Frelimo under President Chissano (Oct.).
1994 Angola
Renewed ceasefire agreement (Nov.).
1994 Zambia
President Chiluba forced to restructure his Cabinet following accusations of corruption (Feb.); further resignations follow Western pressure (July).
1994 Ethiopia
New constitution adopted providing for a federal government of 9 states.
1995 Kenya
Stock exchange opened to foreign investment (Jan.); arrest of opposition MPs (Jan.); Moi’s government accused by Roman Catholic bishops of inept handling of economy (Apr.). Riots in Kibera district of Nairobi (Oct.); continuing Western pressure on Moi to reform his government and human rights record.
1995 Ethiopia
Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front wins overwhelming victory in May elections.
1995 Somalia
Final UN forces leave Somalia (Mar.).
1995 Algeria
Further attempts at reconciliation fail to halt cycle of terrorism and repression between Islamic forces and Algerian government.
1995 Nigeria
General Abacha postpones Constitutional Conference preparing the way for civilian rule and arrests opponents (Mar.); death sentences on 14 passed (July). Deadline for new elections set for 1 Oct. 1998 but followed by execution of writer Ken Saro-Wiwa and 8 other Ogoni activists amidst worldwide protests (Nov.).
1995 Ghana
Violent protests against economic reforms (May).
1995 Zimbabwe
Mugabe’s ZANU-PF wins elections on low turnout (May); arrest of Rev. Sithole, who is accused of plotting against Mugabe.
1995 Mozambique
Reports of serious famine in central and southern Mozambique (Sept.); Mozambique admitted to the Commonwealth (Dec.).
1995 Angola
Meeting of President dos Santos and UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi (May) agrees to bring Savimbi into government as one of 2 joint Vice-Presidents in return for demobilizing UNITA forces. Demobilization halted (Dec.) after fresh clashes between UNITA and government forces.
1995 Zambia
President Chiluba continues process of dismissing corrupt ministers. Former President Kaunda arrested following his return to politics; then threatened with deportation. Closure of Lusaka University following student protests (Nov.), but President Chiluba swept to election victory after opposition boycotts election.
1996 Zimbabwe
President Mugabe wins presidential elections but other candidates withdraw to reduce elections to a formality (Mar.). Government proposes further land reform (June). National strike of public sector workers forces large pay increases to be phased over 3 years (Aug.).
1996 Somalia
Factional fighting resumes (Apr.), with hundreds of casualties, including President Aidid who is shot while leading an attack (died 1 Aug.). Peace talks in November fail to prevent further fighting and over 300 casualties.
1996 Nigeria
United Liberation Front claims responsibility for death of General Abacha’s eldest son in plane crash (Jan.). New opposition organization, the United Democratic Front of Nigeria, formed (1 Apr.); Abacha purges army and air force (Mar.–May) and on 4 June gunmen kill wife of Chief Abiola, winner of quashed 1993 elections. Following demonstrations, government closes Ibadan University; Abacha government also puts down Muslim demonstrations in the north with heavy casualties (Sept.).
1996 Ghana
President Rawlings wins sweeping victory in Presidential elections over John Kufuor of the People’s National Convention Party; in the National Assembly elections Rawlings’s National Democratic Congress wins 130 of the 200 seats (Dec.).
1996 Kenya
President Moi responds to Western criticism of human rights violations by establishing a standing committee to investigate human rights violations (May).
1996 Zaire
Zaire government accuses Rwanda of organizing anti-Mobutu guerrillas; fighting breaks out in eastern Zaire forcing Hutu refugees in Zaire to flee. As Hutu refugees stream back to Rwanda, the anti-Mobutu alliance advances deeper into Zaire led by Laurent Kabila. President Mobutu returns to Kinshasa (17 Dec.) from France where he was undergoing surgery.
1996 Mozambique
IMF loan of $110 million to underpin economic recovery.
1996 Angola
Demobilization of UNITA forces proceeds, but Savimbi rejects his place in the government, forestalling attempts to set up a government of national unity (Sept.).
1997 Zaire
President Mobutu returns to France (8 Jan.). Rebel forces enter Kinshasa and overthrow Mobutu regime (Apr.).
1997 Nigeria
Further arrests and trials of opposition groups; 12 dissidents charged with treason (Mar.).
1998 Kenya
Daniel Moi re-elected president (Jan.). Sierra Leone Intervention force headed by Nigeria ends military junta (Jan.).
1998 Nigeria
General Abubakar promises return to civilian rule in Nigeria in May 1999 (July).
1998 Kenya
Islamic militants attack US embassies in Nairobi and Dares-Salaam (Aug.). 250 killed.
1998 Zimbabwe
Compulsory purchase of over 800 white-owned farms planned (Nov.).
1998 Congo
Invasion by Rwanda and Uganda; counter-intervention by Zimbabwe, Angola and Namibia.
1999 Sierra Leone
Rebels advance on capital (Jan.); government troops fight back (Feb.).
1999 Angola
Renewal of violence leads to withdrawal of UN peacekeepers (Jan.).
1999 Ethiopia/Eritrea
War breaks out over disputed border region (Feb.).
1999 Congo
Renewal of heavy fighting in civil war (May).
1999 Nigeria
Election of Olusegun Obasanjo as president (Feb.) (General Abubakar hands over power in June).
1999 Sierra Leone
Ceasefire in civil war (May).
1999 Morocco
Death of King Hassan after 38-year rule.
2000 Zimbabwe
Voters reject President Mugabe’s plans to redraft constitution (Feb.). Growing chaos in country.
2000 Libya
Trial of two Libyans accused of Lockerbie bombing (May).
2000 Ethiopia/Eritrea
Ceasefire ends 2-year war
2000 Zimbabwe
Land Acquisition Act amended allowing for seizure of white farms without compensation (May). Mugabe wins general election the following month.
2000 Malawi
Dismissal of entire cabinet amidst massive corruption scandal (Nov.).
2000 Ghana
Victory for John Kufuor in run-off ballot for president (Dec.).
By Chris Cook and John Stevenson in "The Routledge Companion to World History since 1914",published 2005 by Routledge (Taylor & Francis), p.94-111. Compiled, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.
Defeat of British forces at Tanga in East Africa by German forces; beginning of protracted guerrilla war in East Africa.
1915 South West
Africa Defeat of German forces in South West Africa.
1916 East Africa
General Smuts leads British conquest of East Africa.
1917 East Africa
German forces from East Africa under Lettow-Vorbeck driven into Mozambique.
Lettow-Vorbeck invades Northern Rhodesia but hostilities halted by armistice.
1918 Africa
First Pan-African Congress convened in Paris by W.E.B.du Bois and Blaise Diagne.
1919 Rhodesia
Rhodesian Native National Congress formed.
1919 South Africa
Strikes organized in the Rand (South Africa).
1920 West Africa
National Congress of British West Africa formed.
1920 Kenya/Uganda
British East Africa divided into colony of Kenya and Uganda protectorate.
1921 Morocco
Abd el Krim defeats Spanish army of 11,000 men under General Silvestre in Spanish Morocco at battle of Anual, and assumes title of Emir.
Abd el Krim proclaims ‘Rif Republic’, is elected President, and sets up an elected Chamber and Council of Ministers.
1922 Kenya
Riots in Kenya over the expulsion of Harry Thuku, leader of the East African Association.
1923 Africa
Second Pan-African Congress.
1923 Nigeria
Nigerian National Democratic Party founded under Herbert Macaulay.
1923 Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia becomes a self-governing colony.
1924 Morocco
Spanish launch offensive against Rif Republic with army of 100,000 men and air force; Abd el Krim defeats Spanish at battle of Sidi Messaoud. General rising in Spanish Morocco. Peace talks break down when Abd el Krim demands complete Spanish evacuation of Morocco, complete independence and the title of Sultan.
1924 Kenya
Kikuyu Central Association comes into being in Kenya to represent grievances of Kikuyu people.
1925 Fr. Morocco
Abd el Krim attacks French-protected Beni Zeroual tribe and comes into conflict with French forces defending French Morocco. French forces under Marshal Lyautey prevent Rif forces from taking Fez and Taza.
1926 Morocco
Franco-Spanish military agreement reached to co-ordinate suppression of Rif revolt. Franco-Spanish forces reduce Rif fortifications and take Targuist, Abd el Krim’s headquarters. Abd el Krim surrenders to the French and is exiled to Reunion.
1927 Africa
Third Pan-African Congress.
1928 Kenya
1928 Senegal/Fr. Colonies
Lamine Gueye campaigns for extension of full French citizenship to all its African subjects; forms Parti Socialiste Senegalais at Dakar.
1933 Kenya
Split in Kenyan KCA when Thuku forms Kikuyu Provincial Association.
1934 Ethiopia
Incident at Wal Wal oasis on border between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland heightens tension between Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and Italy.
1935 Ethiopia
Italy invades Ethiopia.
1936 Ethiopia
Italian forces occupy Addis Ababa.
1937 Tunisia
Rising in Tunisia against French rule.
1940 Somaliland
Britain evacuates Somaliland following Italian invasion.
1940 Kenya
Leaders of Kenyan tribal associations detained.
1941 Ethiopia
British forces begin to occupy Italian East Africa.
1944 Fr. Colonies
Free French hold Brazzaville Conference to discuss future of French possessions in Africa.
1944 Nigeria
Formation of Nigerian NCNC (Aug.); Richards proposals for a Nigerian constitution (Sept.).
1945 Buganda
Rioting in Buganda (later part of Uganda).
1945 Algeria
Nationalist demonstration at Setif in Algeria leads to rioting which is suppressed by French authorities — the ‘Setif massacre’.
1945 Nigeria
Nigerian strike.
1945 Africa
Egypt, Liberia, Ethiopia and South Africa join the United Nations as founder members. Fifth Pan-African Congress held in Manchester. Arab League founded in Cairo.
1946 Gold Coast
Gold Coast Constitution published and becomes first British colony to have an African majority on legislative council (March); Nkrumah attends Fabian Conference at Clacton, England (Apr.).
1946 Nigeria
Tour of Nigeria by NCNC leaders.
1946 Algeria
Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés Democratiques founded by Nessali Hadj in Algeria.
1946 Fr. Colonies
French abolish forced labour in the colonies; by Loi Lamine-Gueye French citizenship extended to all inhabitants of overseas territories. Fonds d’Investissement pour le Developpement Economique et Social (FIDES) set up by France for development of the colonies.
1946 Africa
Rassemblement Democratique Africain (RDA) founded by Bamako Congress.
1947 Nigeria
New Constitution for Nigeria with African majority on the legislature.
1947 Madagascar
Nationalist insurrection in Madagascar.
1947 Gold Coast
United Gold Coast Convention founded by Dr J.B. Danquah; Kwame Nkrumah appointed Secretary.
1947 Tanganyika
Groundnut scheme begun in Tanganyika.
1948 Gold Coast
Boycott of European goods in Gold Coast and riots in Accra (Feb.); Watson Report (June).
1948 Cameroon
Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) formed.
1948 Egypt
Egyptian war with Israel begins.
1948 South Africa
Smuts defeated by Malan in South African election. National Party begins implementation of apartheid policy.
1948 Tunisia
Bourguiba returns to Tunis.
1948 Senegal
Bloc Democratique Senegalais founded.
1948 Zanzibar
General Strike in Zanzibar.
1949 Gold Coast
Convention People’s Party (CPP) founded in Gold Coast by Nkrumah (June); British Cabinet accepts Coussey report on Gold Coast (Oct.).
1949 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
Victoria Falls Conference in favour of federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland; African opposition to proposed federation.
1949 Buganda
Riots in Buganda.
1949 Gold Coast
British Cabinet accepts Coussey report on Gold Coast.
1949 Nigeria
Industrial disturbances and shootings at Enugu colliery and riots in southern Nigeria.
1949 Somalia
United Nations decide that Britain should return Somalia to Italy as a United Nations’ trust territory for 10 years.
1949 Ivory Coast
Widespread disturbances in Ivory Coast.
1950 Gold Coast
‘Positive Action’ policy in Gold Coast.
1950 South Africa
Apartheid laws passed in South Africa.
1950 S.W. Africa
International Court rules that South West Africa should remain under United Nations’ trusteeship.
1950 Congo
Association des Bakongas (Abako) formed in Belgian Congo.
1950 Nigeria
Action Group formed in Nigeria.
1950 Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP) founded by Milton Margai.
1951 Gold Coast
1951 Nigeria
Macpherson constitution enacted in Nigeria.
1951 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
Victoria Falls Conference on Central African Federation; British government accepts idea of a federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
1951 Sierra Leone
Elections in Sierra Leone; Milton Margai in office.
1951 Libya
Libya becomes an independent kingdom.
1952 Gold Coast
Kwame Nkrumah becomes Prime Minister of the Gold Coast.
1952 Egypt
Army coup in Egypt; committee of ‘Free Officers’ forces King Farouk to abdicate; General Neguib takes power.
1952 Ethiopia
Eritrea federated with Ethiopia.
1952 Kenya
Following increased violence in Kikuyuland, ‘Mau Mau’ Emergency proclaimed.
1952 South Africa
All non-whites compelled to carry passes in South Africa; non-white political organizations launch ‘passive resistance’ campaign against apartheid; leaders arrested.
1953 South Africa
Emergency powers introduced by the South African government against passive resistance; new racial laws introduced.
1953 Sudan
Anglo-Egyptian agreement on the Sudan.
1953 Egypt
Egypt becomes a republic; Party of National Liberation under Neguib becomes Egypt’s sole political party.
1953 Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta and five others convicted of managing ‘Mau Mau’ in Kenya.
1953 Gold Coast
Nkrumah announces ‘Motion of Destiny’.
1953 Nigeria
Nigerian Constitutional Conference held in London.
1953 Morocco
French deport Mohamed V from Morocco.
1953 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland created.
1953 Tanganyika
1953 Morocco
Franco deposes the Sultan of Morocco.
1954 Egypt
Colonel Nasser seizes power in Egypt.
1954 Nigeria
Nigerian Constitutional Conference in Lagos (Jan.). Federal system of government formalized by Lyttleton Constitution (Oct.).
1954 Gold Coast
CPP wins elections in Gold Coast and Britain promises independence.
1954 Tanganyika
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) formed with Julius Nyerere as President.
1954 Egypt
Anglo-Egyptian agreement on the evacuation of Suez Canal Zone.
1954 Algeria
Beginning of Algerian War of Independence.
1955 Africa
Bandung Conference in Indonesia.
1955 Morocco
Moroccan Army of Liberation attacks French posts in West Algeria (Aug.); King Mohamed V restored to throne by French (Nov.).
1955 Sudan
Beginning of armed rebellion in South Sudan.
1956 Sudan
Sudan becomes an independent Republic.
1956 Algeria
Violent settler demonstrations in Algiers.
1956 Fr. Colonies
Deferre introduces loi cadre providing for local autonomy in Black African territories.
1956 Morocco/Tunisia
France recognizes independence of Morocco and Tunisia.
1956 Egypt
1956 Cameroon
Civil War in Cameroon.
1956 Algeria/Nigeria
Oil discovered in Algeria and Nigeria.
1956 Northern Rhodesia
State of emergency declared in Northern Rhodesia after miners’ strike in the copper belt.
1956 Port Guinea and Cape Verde
African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) founded.
1956 Angola
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) founded.
1957 Gold Coast/Ghana
Gold Coast becomes independent as Ghana.
1957 Nigeria
Second London conference on Nigerian constitution; eastern and western regions of Nigeria become selfgoverning.
1957 Fr. West Africa
Houphouet-Boigny President of Grand Council of French West Africa.
1957 Sierra Leone
SLPP wins general election in Sierra Leone.
1957 Tunisia
Bey of Tunis deposed; Tunisia becomes a republic.
1957 Africa
Afro-Asian Solidarity Conference in Cairo.
1958 Tunisia
French military raids into Tunisia.
1958 Togo
Togo becomes independent.
1958 Nyasaland
Dr Hastings Banda returns to Nyasaland.
1958 Fr. Colonies
General de Gaulle advocates a federation with internal autonomy for French overseas territories as the French Community; at Brazzaville he announces independence for French Africa.
1958 Algeria
Algerian provisional government set up in Cairo.
1958 Guinea
1958 Sudan
Military coup led by General Abboud overthrows Sudanese government.
1959 Nyasaland
State of Emergency declared in Nyasaland; Dr Banda imprisoned.
1959 Libya
Oil discovered in Libya.
1959 Nigeria
Northern Region of Nigeria becomes self-governing.
1959 Africa
Saniquellé meeting of Presidents Nkrumah, Tubman and Touré to plan union of free African states.
1959 Congo
Riots in Belgian Congo.
1959 Fr. Colonies
Senegal and Sudan demand independence and bring about the end of the French Community.
1960 Africa
Harold Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech in Cape Town. French atomic device exploded in the Sahara.
1960 South Africa
Demonstration on 21 Mar. at Sharpeville fired on by South African police; 67 Africans killed.
1960 Congo
Belgian Congo becomes independent; Force publique mutinies; United Nations troops sent into Congo.
1960 Tanganyika
TANU wins election in Tanganyika and Julius Nyerere becomes Chief Minister.
1960 Nigeria
Nigeria becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1960 Namibia
SWAPO (South West African People’s Organization) founded.
1961 Algeria
Armed forces announce that they have taken over control of Algeria; OAS terrorism begins. Algerian peace talks begin in Evian, France.
1961 Congo
1961 Angola
Rebellion begins in Angola against the Portuguese.
1961 Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1961 South Africa
South Africa becomes a republic and leaves the Commonwealth.
1961 Tanganyika
Tanganyika becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1961 Rhodesia
Rhodesia Front party formed.
1962 Rwanda/Burundi
Rwanda and Burundi become independent.
1961 Ghana
Plots against President Nkrumah’s life in Ghana.
1961 Uganda
Uganda becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1961 Algeria
Algerian independence agreed to at end of Evian peace talks.
1961 N. Rhodesia
First African government formed in Northern Rhodesia.
1961 Mozambique
Frelimo headquarters set up in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanganyika.
1963 Congo
End of Katanga secession in Congo.
1963 Togo
President Olympio killed in Togo coup.
1963 Africa
Organization of African Unity (OAU) formed in Addis Ababa by 30 heads of state.
1963 Rhodesia/Nyasaland
End of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
1963 Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta becomes Prime Minister of Kenya.
1963 Zanzibar
Zanzibar becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1963 Tunisia
French evacuate the naval base at Bizerta, Tunisia.
1963 Kenya
Kenya becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1964 Rwanda
Massacre of Tutsi in Rwanda.
1964 Zanzibar
Revolution in Zanzibar; Sultan overthrown and Karume becomes President.
1964 East Africa
Army mutinies in Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda; British troops called in to help restore order.
1964 Tanganyika
Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar as Tanzania.
1964 South Africa
1964 Congo
Tshombe becomes President of Congo; revolts in Congo provinces; Belgian parachutists land at Stanleyville and elsewhere to rescue Europeans.
1964 Malawi/Zambia
Malawi and Zambia become independent states within the Commonwealth.
1964 Mozambique
Frelimo begins armed struggle against Portuguese in Mozambique.
1965 Fr. Colonies
Organisation Commune Africaine et Malagache (OCAM) formed at conference of French-speaking heads of state at Nouakchott.
1965 Tanzania
Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai), the Chinese Premier, visits Tanzania; one-party state adopted in Tanzania.
1965 S. Rhodesia
Rhodesia Front party wins general election in Southern Rhodesia; Ian Smith declares Rhodesia’s ‘unilateral declaration of independence’ (UDI); UN Security Council embargo placed on Rhodesia.
1965 Congo
General Mobutu takes over complete power in Congo.
1966 Africa
Commonwealth Conference in Lagos.
1966 Nigeria
First military coup in Nigeria led by Ibo officers; a countercoup follows 6 months later.
1966 Ghana
President Nkrumah deposed by military and police coup in
Ghana.
1966 Uganda
Milton Obote seizes the Kabaka’s palace in Kampala and makes Uganda into a centralized state.
1966 Botswana
Botswana becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1966 Congo
Union Minière du Haut-Katanga taken over by Congo government.
1967 Tanzania
Arusha Declaration issued in Tanzania.
1967 Sierra Leone
Two army coups in Sierra Leone.
1967 Egypt
Arab–Israeli ‘Six Day War’; Israelis occupy Sinai and
defeat Egypt.
1967 Congo
Uprising in eastern and northern Congo ended by foreign mercenaries employed by Gen. Mobutu’s central government.
1967 E. Africa
East African Community established by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
1967 Nigeria
Secession of Eastern Region as independent state of Biafra; beginning of civil war in Nigeria.
1968 Malawi
Malawi establishes diplomatic relations with South Africa.
1968 Rhodesia
Start of guerrilla war in Rhodesia.
1968 Nigeria
Tanzania, Ivory Coast and two other African states recognize Biafran independence.
1968 Eq. Guinea
Equatorial Guinea becomes independent of Spain.
1968 Mali
Military coup in Mali.
1968 Swaziland
Swaziland becomes an independent state within the Commonwealth.
1969 Libya
1969 Ghana
General election in Ghana returns Dr Busia as Prime Minister. Ghana expels thousands of aliens.
1969 Kenya
Serious political disturbances in western Kenya.
1970 Nigeria
End of Nigerian civil war.
1970 Libya
British withdrawal from military bases in Libya.
1970 Uganda
President Obote’s ‘Common Man’s Charter’ introduced in Uganda.
1970 Tanzania
Chinese offer aid to Tanzania to build railway from Dares-Salaam to Zambian copper belt.
1970 Egypt
Aswan High Dam in Egypt comes into operation.
1971 Uganda
General Amin leads military coup which overthrows President Obote of Uganda.
1971 South Africa
Central African Republic recognizes South Africa and receives economic aid from it.
1971 Congo/Zaire
Congo renamed Zaire.
1971 South Africa
Declaration of Mogadishu issued by eastern and central African states stating their intention to continue the armed struggle to liberate South Africa.
1971 S. Rhodesia
African National Council (ANC) formed in Rhodesia by Bishop Muzorewa.
1972 Zaire
‘African authenticity’ campaign launched by President Mobutu in Zaire.
1972 Ghana
Army coup in Ghana; General Acheampong overthrows Busia government.
1972 S. Rhodesia
Pearce Commission in Rhodesia reports an overwhelming ‘no’ by African population to settlement proposals.
1972 Uganda
President Amin begins to expel Asians from Uganda.
1972 Sudan
Agreement in Sudan on ‘southern problem’; regional autonomy granted to the south.
1972 Burundi
Huto rising in Burundi suppressed with great loss of life.
1972 Madagascar
Military coup in Madagascar.
1973 S. Rhodesia/Zambia
Zambia-Rhodesia border closed by President Kaunda.
1973 South Africa
Serious strikes by black workers in South Africa.
1973 S. Rhodesia
Prime Minister Smith of Rhodesia begins talks with African nationalists in an attempt to find some form of internal settlement.
1973 Egypt
Israel–Egypt war; Egyptian troops retake part of Sinai.
1973 Africa
Oil crisis brings great increase in prices for African states.
1973 Ethiopia
Widespread drought in Ethiopia.
1974 Ethiopia
Emperor Haile Selassie overthrown by a military coup; Dergue established to rule the country.
1974 Portuguese Colonies
Coup in Lisbon by army officers disillusioned with the African wars brings down the Caetano regime and begins the process of decolonization in the Portuguese empire in Africa.
1974 Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau becomes independent.
1975 Africa Lomé Agreement signed between EEC and 37 African states.
1975 West Africa
Economic Community of West African States (Ecowas) Treaty signed by 15 states.
1975 Portuguese Colonies
Portugal’s withdrawal from Africa; independence for Cape Verde Islands, São Tomé and Principé. Mozambique (June) and Angola (Nov.). Civil war in Angola.
1975 Zambia/Tanzania
Tanzam railway officially opened between Zambia and Tanzania.
1975 S. Rhodesia
Four ‘front-line’ presidents at Quilemane pledge support for the Zimbabwe National Liberation Army.
1975 Nigeria
General Murtala Mohamed, President of Nigeria, assassinated in Lagos.
1975 Angola
South African troops invade Angola in support of UNITA forces.
1976 South Africa
Soweto riots and boycotts. Over 700 dead by 1977.
1976 Spanish Morocco
Spain withdraws from Western Sahara; territory partitioned between Morocco and Mauritania. Proclamation of Sahara Arab Democratic Republic, which through its armed Polisario Front wages a guerrilla war against both occupying states.
1976 South Africa
South Africa declares Transkei independent.
1976 Ethiopia
‘Palace coup’ in Addis Ababa.
1977 Djibouti
Djibouti became an independent state; final withdrawal of France from African territory.
1977 Zaire
Invasion of Shaba province, Zaire, by Katangese rebels.
1977 Ethiopia
Somali-supported forces invade Ogaden; serious fighting in the region. Cuban aid to Ethiopia in the war.
1977 Central African Rep.
Central African Empire proclaimed by Bokassa.
1977 Ethiopia
Widespread purge in Ethiopia by the Dergue.
1977 Nigeria
Constituent Assembly meets in Nigeria in preparation for a return to civilian government.
1978 Tunisia
Serious strikes in Tunisia.
1978 S. Rhodesia Internal agreement in Rhodesia; transitional government formed.
1978 Ethiopia/Somalia
Somali forces defeated by Ethiopia in Ogaden war; Ethiopia steps up its attacks on Eritrean nationalist forces.
1978 Guinea
Reconciliation of Guinea with France.
1978 Uganda
Uganda invasion of Kagera salient in north-west Tanzania.
1978 South Africa
‘Muldergate’ scandal in South Africa.
1978 Ghana
Gen. Acheampong deposed in Ghana.
1979 Tanzania/Uganda
Tanzania supports Ugandan Liberation Front in invasion of Uganda; President Amin overthrown.
1979 Central African Rep.
1979 Eq. Guinea
President Macias Nguema of Equatorial Guinea overthrown.
1979 Ghana
Junior officers coup in Ghana led by Flight-Lt Rawlings; three former heads of state executed.
1979 Ghana/Nigeria
Elections in Ghana and Nigeria return both countries to civilian rule.
1979 S. Rhodesia/Zimbabwe
Lancaster House talks in London on a settlement for Zimbabwe; the country reverts to British rule for transitional period.
1980 Zimbabwe
Elections in Zimbabwe result in an overwhelming victory for Robert Mugabe’s ZANU-PF party. Mugabe becomes Prime Minister of an independent Zimbabwe.
1980 Liberia
Military coup in Liberia by junior army officers.
1980 Uganda
Military-backed coup in Uganda deposes President Binaisa; Dr Obote winner in first Ugandan elections for 18 years.
1980 Tunisia/Libya
Tension between Tunisia and Libya after clashes at Gafsa.
1980 Chad
Unrest in Chad leaves 700 dead.
1981 Zimbabwe
Serious clashes between ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrilla forces.
1981 Egypt
President Sadat of Egypt assassinated in Cairo; vice-president Hosni Mubarrak becomes president.
1981 Gambia
Coup in Gambia fails when British SAS free hostages held by rebels.
1982 Uganda
Further coup fails in Uganda.
1982 South Africa
Dr Treurnicht launches ultra-right-wing Conservative Party in South Africa.
1982 Kenya
Army coup in Kenya foiled.
1982 Lesotho
South African raid on Lesotho.
1982 Upper Volta
Army coup in Upper Volta.
1983 Chad
French troops sent to Chad to resist Libyan invasion.
1983 Ethiopia
Serious drought and famine in Ethiopia, affecting between 2 and 4 million people; worldwide mobilization of aid.
1984 Nigeria
Major General Buhari takes power in Nigeria.
1984 Mozambique/South Africa
Mozambique government signs peace accord with South Africa.
1984 Nigeria
Serious religious riots in Yola, northern Nigeria.
1984 Chad
French and Libyan forces agree to evacuate Chad.
1984 South Africa
P.W.Botha returned to power as President of South Africa; new tri-racial Parliament opened.
1985 Uganda
President Obote overthrown by army coup in Uganda. Major-General Okello sworn in as country’s new leader.
1985 Nigeria
Further coup in Nigeria.
1985 South Africa
Emergency legislation in South Africa; hundreds detained and many killed following serious violence and school boycotts. Press reporting restricted. Botha promises reform but at own pace.
1985 Sudan
Sudanese army seizes power deposing President Nimeiri.
1985 South Africa/Namibia
South African troops withdraw from southern Angola; an independent government to be set up in Namibia.
1986 Uganda
Yoweri Museveni backed by the National Resistance Army overthrows President Okello in Uganda.
1986 South Africa
South African backed coup in Lesotho; South African raids into Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana. Widespread boycotts and violence lead to state of emergency; hundreds killed by government forces and in communal violence; over eight thousand detained. US applies trade sanctions and disinvestment by US companies begins.
1986 Mozambique
President Machel of Mozambique killed in plane crash; succeeded by Joachim Chissano.
1986 Libya
US air attack on Libya for complicity with terrorism.
1987 Tunisia
1988 South Africa
Nelson Mandela moved into hospital accommodation. ‘Free Nelson Mandela’ campaign intensifies.
1989
Sudan Coup in Sudan.
1989 Namibia
Agreement on future independence of Namibia; UN peacekeeping force supervises departure of SWAPO guerrillas and South African forces.
1989 South Africa
Botha suffers stroke. De Klerk President following narrow victory in general election. Several killed during boycott and demonstrations during elections.
1990 South Africa
30-year ban on ANC lifted; final release from Victor Verster prison, Cape Town, of Nelson Mandela (11 Feb.). Preliminary talks on future of South Africa between de Klerk and ANC delegation (May).
1990 Namibia
Namibia achieves independence (20 Mar.), becoming 50th member of Commonwealth and 160th member of United Nations.
1990 Nigeria
Coup attempt by junior officers failed (Apr.).
1990 Liberia
Civil war in Liberia. The rebels seize and murder President Doe (Sept.).
1990 Tanzania
After holding the position of head of state (1985), Ali Hassan Mwinyi takes leadership of the Tanzanian Revolutionary Party over from Nyerere.
1990 Rwanda
Tutsi guerrillas from neighbouring Uganda break into the country in order to overthrow the Hutu majority government in power (Oct.).
1990 Chad
The rebels, led by General Idriss Deby, overthrow President Hissène Habré who has been in power since 1982 (Dec.).
1991 Somalia
President Mohamed Siad Barra, who came to power in Oct. 1969 with a military coup, is forced to flee from the country because of an armed uprising (Jan.). Northern Somalian separatists proclaim the Republic of Somaliland (its border identical to the former British Somalia) (May).
1991 Angola
The last Cuban soldier leaves the territory of the country. In Lisbon, a ‘final’ ceasefire agreement is signed by the leader of MPLA, José E.dos Santos, and the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi (May).
1991 Ethiopia
President Mengistu resigns and flees from the country. The dissident armed forces seize the capital (May); Meles Zenawi, the leader of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front, forms a provisional government (June). An agreement is reached between the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front and the new Ethiopian government that a plebiscite will be held in two years on the issue of the independence of Eritrea (July).
1991 Africa
In the Nigerian town of Abuja, heads of state of the Organization of African Unity sign a treaty (June) for creating an African Economic Community by 2025.
1991 Zaire
President Mobutu allows a multi-party system and, as a result of the rebellions, he appoints the leader of the opposition, Etienne Tshisekedi, as Prime Minister (Oct.).
1991 Zambia
At the multi-party elections held for the first time after 18 years, the opposition Movement for a Multi-party Democracy wins against the United National Independence Party, led by President Kaunda. The new President is Frederick Chiluba (Nov.).
1991 Nigeria
Disturbances and bloody religious clashes between Christians and Muslims (Nov.).
1992 Algeria
After the first round of the multi-party parliamentary elections, the fundamentalist Islamic Salvation Front achieves a landslide victory (Dec. 1991); the election process is suspended (12 Jan.). A 5-member Supreme State Council takes over powers of head of state from the resigned President Chadli Bendjedid. The head of this state council is Mohammed Budiaf (15 Jan.). After a ban on the FIS (Mar.), civil war threatens the country. Budiaf is assassinated (29 June). The new state council chairman is Ali Khafi.
1992 Tanzania
The Executive Committee of the Tanzanian Revolutionary Party accepts a resolution to introduce a multi-party system (Jan.).
1992 Libya
The UN Security Council orders economic sanctions against Libya after it rejected the extradition of Libyan terrorists (Apr.).
1992 Sierra Leone
A military coup overthrows President Joseph Momoh, who has been in power since 1985. The new head of state is the President of the National Provisional Governing Council, Captain Valentine Strasser (May).
1992 Angola
The parliamentary and presidential elections are won by the MPLA and former President dos Santos (Sept.). UNITA declares the outcome fraudulent and fighting flares up once again.
1992 Madagascar
The third unsuccessful coup attempt within 3 years takes place against the political regime of President Didier Ratsiraka (July).
1992 Mozambique
In Rome an agreement on the discontinuation of the 15-year-long civil war is signed by President Chissano and the leader of the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO), Alfonso Dhlakama (Oct.).
1992 Ghana
The first Presidential elections since 1979 are won by the President-in-Office, Rawlings (Nov.).
1992 Africa
An international conference is held to provide support for starving African children (Nov.).
1992 Somalia
Under the auspices of the UN, a large-scale humanitarian and military aid-action (Operation ‘New Hope’) is organized in order to revitalize the country devastated by civil war and famine (Aug.). The landing of 28,000 US troops begins (Dec.).
1992 Kenya
The first multi-party parliamentary and presidential elections held in 26 years are won by the governing party KANU and President Daniel Arap Moi (Dec.).
1993 Zaïre
Military rebellion breaks out in the capital (Jan.). President Mobutu appoints Faustin Birindwa as Prime Minister (Mar.).
1993 Madagascar
The Presidential election is won by the opposition’s candidate, Albert Zafy (Mar.).
1993 Niger
The first free Presidential election is won by the opposition Social Democrats’ candidate, Mahamane Ousmane (Mar.).
1993 Eritrea
On the basis of 95% of the votes of its population (Apr.), Eritrea separates from Ethiopia and becomes an independent republic (May). Its first President is the leader of the EPLF, Isajas Afeverki.
1993 Somalia
Troops arrive from 20 member states of the UN, replacing the American soldiers (May). The clashes with armed gangs who control a great part of the country become more and more serious.
1993 Malawi
At a plebiscite, the population votes for the introduction of a multi-party system (June).
1993 Egypt
1993 Nigeria
The military leadership denounces the results of the presidential election (June), yet President Babangida still renounces power to a civilian government (Aug.). Ernest Shonekan is soon replaced by General Sani Abacha, who dissolves all the democratically elected institutions and establishes the Provisional Governing Council (Nov).
1993 Liberia
In Benin the representatives of the provisional government and various armed groups sign a peace treaty ordering an end to the war and announcing multi-party elections (July).
1993 Rwanda
A peace treaty is signed ordering the end of civil war (Aug.). In order to ensure that the treaty is observed, UN forces arrive in the country (Nov.).
1993 Togo
In an election boycotted by the opposition, General Eyadéma, who has been in power since 1967, is elected.
1993 Burundi
During an unsuccessful coup attempt by Tutsi officers, President Melchior Ndadaye, who has been in power since June as a result of the first multi-party elections in the country’s history, is assassinated (21 Oct.).
1993 South Africa
At the CODESA negotiations an agreement is reached on the draft of an apartheid-free constitution, thus ending the rule of the white minority.
1994 Algeria
Failure of conference on transition to democracy (Jan.) when boycotted by all major parties leads to escalating terrorism and civil war.
1994 Ghana
In widespread ethnic disorder, over 1,000 killed (Feb.).
1994 Kenya
Death of Mr Odinga, leader of Kenyan opposition (Jan.); economic reforms launched to encourage foreign investment.
1994 Zimbabwe
New opposition party formed (Jan.); exposure of corruption stemming from compulsory land purchase in 1992 by government officials (Mar.–May).
1994 Mozambique
All-party defence force set up as part of process of reconciliation (Aug.). Multi-party elections lead to narrow victory for Frelimo under President Chissano (Oct.).
1994 Angola
Renewed ceasefire agreement (Nov.).
1994 Zambia
President Chiluba forced to restructure his Cabinet following accusations of corruption (Feb.); further resignations follow Western pressure (July).
1994 Ethiopia
New constitution adopted providing for a federal government of 9 states.
1995 Kenya
Stock exchange opened to foreign investment (Jan.); arrest of opposition MPs (Jan.); Moi’s government accused by Roman Catholic bishops of inept handling of economy (Apr.). Riots in Kibera district of Nairobi (Oct.); continuing Western pressure on Moi to reform his government and human rights record.
1995 Ethiopia
Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front wins overwhelming victory in May elections.
1995 Somalia
Final UN forces leave Somalia (Mar.).
1995 Algeria
Further attempts at reconciliation fail to halt cycle of terrorism and repression between Islamic forces and Algerian government.
1995 Nigeria
General Abacha postpones Constitutional Conference preparing the way for civilian rule and arrests opponents (Mar.); death sentences on 14 passed (July). Deadline for new elections set for 1 Oct. 1998 but followed by execution of writer Ken Saro-Wiwa and 8 other Ogoni activists amidst worldwide protests (Nov.).
1995 Ghana
Violent protests against economic reforms (May).
1995 Zimbabwe
Mugabe’s ZANU-PF wins elections on low turnout (May); arrest of Rev. Sithole, who is accused of plotting against Mugabe.
1995 Mozambique
Reports of serious famine in central and southern Mozambique (Sept.); Mozambique admitted to the Commonwealth (Dec.).
1995 Angola
Meeting of President dos Santos and UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi (May) agrees to bring Savimbi into government as one of 2 joint Vice-Presidents in return for demobilizing UNITA forces. Demobilization halted (Dec.) after fresh clashes between UNITA and government forces.
1995 Zambia
President Chiluba continues process of dismissing corrupt ministers. Former President Kaunda arrested following his return to politics; then threatened with deportation. Closure of Lusaka University following student protests (Nov.), but President Chiluba swept to election victory after opposition boycotts election.
1996 Zimbabwe
President Mugabe wins presidential elections but other candidates withdraw to reduce elections to a formality (Mar.). Government proposes further land reform (June). National strike of public sector workers forces large pay increases to be phased over 3 years (Aug.).
1996 Somalia
Factional fighting resumes (Apr.), with hundreds of casualties, including President Aidid who is shot while leading an attack (died 1 Aug.). Peace talks in November fail to prevent further fighting and over 300 casualties.
1996 Nigeria
United Liberation Front claims responsibility for death of General Abacha’s eldest son in plane crash (Jan.). New opposition organization, the United Democratic Front of Nigeria, formed (1 Apr.); Abacha purges army and air force (Mar.–May) and on 4 June gunmen kill wife of Chief Abiola, winner of quashed 1993 elections. Following demonstrations, government closes Ibadan University; Abacha government also puts down Muslim demonstrations in the north with heavy casualties (Sept.).
1996 Ghana
President Rawlings wins sweeping victory in Presidential elections over John Kufuor of the People’s National Convention Party; in the National Assembly elections Rawlings’s National Democratic Congress wins 130 of the 200 seats (Dec.).
1996 Kenya
President Moi responds to Western criticism of human rights violations by establishing a standing committee to investigate human rights violations (May).
1996 Zaire
Zaire government accuses Rwanda of organizing anti-Mobutu guerrillas; fighting breaks out in eastern Zaire forcing Hutu refugees in Zaire to flee. As Hutu refugees stream back to Rwanda, the anti-Mobutu alliance advances deeper into Zaire led by Laurent Kabila. President Mobutu returns to Kinshasa (17 Dec.) from France where he was undergoing surgery.
1996 Mozambique
IMF loan of $110 million to underpin economic recovery.
1996 Angola
Demobilization of UNITA forces proceeds, but Savimbi rejects his place in the government, forestalling attempts to set up a government of national unity (Sept.).
1997 Zaire
President Mobutu returns to France (8 Jan.). Rebel forces enter Kinshasa and overthrow Mobutu regime (Apr.).
1997 Nigeria
Further arrests and trials of opposition groups; 12 dissidents charged with treason (Mar.).
1998 Kenya
Daniel Moi re-elected president (Jan.). Sierra Leone Intervention force headed by Nigeria ends military junta (Jan.).
1998 Nigeria
General Abubakar promises return to civilian rule in Nigeria in May 1999 (July).
1998 Kenya
Islamic militants attack US embassies in Nairobi and Dares-Salaam (Aug.). 250 killed.
1998 Zimbabwe
Compulsory purchase of over 800 white-owned farms planned (Nov.).
1998 Congo
Invasion by Rwanda and Uganda; counter-intervention by Zimbabwe, Angola and Namibia.
1999 Sierra Leone
Rebels advance on capital (Jan.); government troops fight back (Feb.).
1999 Angola
Renewal of violence leads to withdrawal of UN peacekeepers (Jan.).
1999 Ethiopia/Eritrea
War breaks out over disputed border region (Feb.).
1999 Congo
Renewal of heavy fighting in civil war (May).
1999 Nigeria
Election of Olusegun Obasanjo as president (Feb.) (General Abubakar hands over power in June).
1999 Sierra Leone
Ceasefire in civil war (May).
Death of King Hassan after 38-year rule.
2000 Zimbabwe
Voters reject President Mugabe’s plans to redraft constitution (Feb.). Growing chaos in country.
2000 Libya
Trial of two Libyans accused of Lockerbie bombing (May).
2000 Ethiopia/Eritrea
Ceasefire ends 2-year war
2000 Zimbabwe
Land Acquisition Act amended allowing for seizure of white farms without compensation (May). Mugabe wins general election the following month.
2000 Malawi
Dismissal of entire cabinet amidst massive corruption scandal (Nov.).
2000 Ghana
Victory for John Kufuor in run-off ballot for president (Dec.).
By Chris Cook and John Stevenson in "The Routledge Companion to World History since 1914",published 2005 by Routledge (Taylor & Francis), p.94-111. Compiled, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.
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