PROFESSIONAL COOKING AND HANDLING MEATS
The heat of cooking affects tenderness in two ways:
1. It tenderizes connective tissue if moisture is present and cooking is slow.
2. It toughens protein. Even meats low in connective tissue can be tough and dry if cooked at excessively high heats for too long.
THE PRINCIPLE OF LOW-HEAT COOKING
1. High heat toughens and shrinks protein and results in excessive moisture loss. Therefore, low-heat cooking should be the general practice for most meat cooking methods.
2. Broiling seems to be a contradiction to this rule.The reason carefully broiled meat stays tender is that it is done quickly. It takes time for the heat to be conducted to the interior of the meat,so the inside never gets very hot. Meat broiled to the point of being well done, however, is likely to be dry.
3. Roasts cooked at low temperatures have better yields than those roasted at high heat.That is,they shrink less and lose less moisture.
4. Because both liquid and steam are better conductors of heat than air, moist heat penetrates meat quickly. Therefore, to avoid overcooking, meat should be simmered, never boiled.
BREAKING DOWN CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Remember that connective tissue is highest in muscles that are frequently exercised and in mature animals..You should detect a pattern of tender cuts, cooked primarily by dry heat; slightly less tender cuts, cooked sometimes by dry and sometimes by moist heat; and least tender cuts,cooked almost always by moist heat. The concept of moist-heat cooking needs further explanation as it applies to breaking down connective tissue in meat.The usual explanation of the effect of moist heat on connective tissue is that heat breaks down collagen in the presence of moisture. But meat is about 75 percent water, so moisture is always present. Collagen breaks down because of long,slow cooking,no matter what cooking method is used.
The catch is that, for small cuts of meat, dry-heat cooking methods are usually short, quick methods. Cooking must be short, in part because too long an exposure to dry heat results in excessive moisture loss from the product.The terms moist-heat cooking method and dry-heat cooking method refer to the way in which heat is transferred from the heat source to the food,whether by dry means like hot air or radiation, or moist means like steam or simmering liquid. Because the product is surrounded by moisture when it is simmered, steamed, or braised, moist-heat cooking methods promote moisture retention, not moisture loss, so the cooking time can be as long as desired.
A tough steak on the grill or in the oven doesn’t have enough time to become tender before it is dried out. On the other hand, large cuts of less tender meat can be roasted successfully because they are too large to dry out during a long roasting time.A 40-pound (18-kg) roast steamship round of beef can be tender because it takes hours to cook even to the rare stage. A grilled steak cut from the same round,however,is likely to be tough.
To summarize: Long, slow cooking tenderizes collagen. Moist-heat methods are most suitable for long, slow cooking. Dry-heat methods usually are short, quick cooking methods, suitable only for tender cuts, except when larger items are roasted for a relatively long time.
1. Rib and loin cuts.
Always the most tender cuts,used mostly for roasts, steaks,and chops.
Beef and lamb. Because these meats are often eaten rare or medium done,the rib and loin are used almost exclusively for roasting,broiling,and grilling.
Veal and pork. Pork is generally eaten well done,and veal is most often eaten well done, although many people prefer it slightly pink in the center.Therefore, these meats are occasionally braised, not to develop tenderness but to help preserve juices.Veal chops, which are very low in fat,may be broiled if great care is taken not to overcook them and dry them out. A safer approach is to use a method with fat,such as sautéing or pan-frying, or to use moist heat.
2. Leg or round.
Veal, lamb, and pork.These meats are from young animals and therefore are tender enough to roast. Legs make excellent roasts because large muscles with few seams and uniform grain allow easy slicing and attractive portions. Figure 10.9 shows the muscle structure of the round in cross section.A center-cut steak from a whole round of beef,lamb,veal,or pork has this same basic structure.
3. Chuck or shoulder.
Beef. Beef chuck is a tougher cut that is usually braised.Although chuck is not the ideal choice for braising if uniform slices are desired,it makes braised dishes of excellent eating quality. Its connective tissue is easily broken down by moist cooking, yielding moist,tender meat with abundant gelatin content
Veal, lamb, and pork. These are most often braised but are young enough to be roasted or cut into chops for broiling. Shoulder roasts are not the most desirable because they consist of many small muscles running in several directions.Therefore,they do not produce attractive, solid slices.
4. Shanks, breast, brisket, and flank.
These are the least tender cuts, even on young animals, and are almost always cooked by moist heat. Shanks are desirable for braising and simmering because their high collagen content is converted into gelatin that gives body to braising liquids and good eating quality to the meat. Beef flank steaks can be broiled (as London broil) if they are cooked rare and cut across the grain into thin slices.This cuts the connective tissue into chewable pieces (see mechanical tenderization,p.258).
5. Ground meat, cubed steaks, and stew meat.
These can come from any primal cut.They are usually made from trimmings, although whole chucks are sometimes ground into chopped meat. Ground meat and cubed steaks can be cooked by dry or moist heat because they have been mechanically tenderized.Stew meat is,of course,cooked by moist heat.
1. Fat content.
Meats high in fat,such as Prime beef or lamb, are generally cooked without added fat,such as by roasting or broiling. Meats low in fat,such as veal, are often cooked with added fat to prevent dryness. Sautéing, pan-frying, or braising is generally preferable to broiling for veal chops that are cooked well done.
Fat can be added to lean meats in two ways:
• Barding.Tying slices of fat,such as pork fatback,over meats with no natural fat cover to protect them while roasting.
• Larding.Inserting strips of fat with a larding needle into meats low in marbling.
These two techniques were developed in Europe when meats were much leaner and not as tender.They are not often used with today’s tender, grain-fed meats.These techniques are useful, however, when cooking lean game, such as venison.
2. Developing tenderness is not the only goal of cooking.
Other goals are
• Developing flavor.
• Preventing excessive shrinkage and nutrient loss.
• Developing appearance.
You must often compromise to get a balanced result.For example,preliminary browning of a roast at high heat increases shrinkage but may be desirable for some roasts to develop flavor and appearance.
SEARING AND “SEALING”
Searing
The purpose of searing meats at high heat is to create desirable flavor and color by browning the surfaces. It was long believed that searing the surface of meat “seals the pores,”keeping in juices.
This does not actually happen. Meat does not have pores but rather an open network of fibers.Think of the surface of a steak as resembling the cut end of a thick rope. There are no pores to seal. It is true that heavy browning creates a kind of crust on the surface of the meat, but this crust is no more waterproof than an unbrowned surface. You can easily demonstrate that this is true. Place a steak or chop on a hot griddle or grill and sear it well.Turn it over and continue cooking.As it cooks,you will see meat juices driven up through the seared top surface.You will continue to hear a sizzling sound,which is the sound of moisture escaping from the meat and quickly vaporizing.
Remove the finished steak from the grill and let it set on a plate for a few minutes,and you will see a small pool of juices collect. Everyone who has cooked a steak has seen this demonstration that searing doesn’t seal. Roasts cooked from the start at a low temperature retain more juices than roasts that are seared at high heat first. Steaks,chops,and cutlets cooked quickly at high heat retain more moisture at first because the intense heat instantly evaporates the juices from the surface of the meat and forces internal juices further into the meat.This permits browning, because moisture would create steam and inhibit browning. However, overcooked steaks are dry whether or not they were seared.
Blanching and “Sealing”
Dropping meat into boiling water doesn’t seal the pores either.What actually happens is this: Many proteins dissolve in cold water.When heated,these proteins coagulate and become froth or scum on the surface of the water.When meat is placed into boiling water, some of the protein coagulates inside that meat and not as much is carried out of the meat with the lost moisture. Prolonged cooking shrinks meat as much if started in boiling water as if started in cold water.
COOKING FROZEN MEATS
Some sources recommend cooking some meats from the frozen state, without thawing, in order to eliminate drip loss that occurs during defrosting.However, it is usually better to thaw before cooking because of the following reasons:
1. Frozen meats lose no moisture from defrosting but lose more during cooking.The total loss is about the same as for thawed meats. Besides, the perception of juiciness depends as much or more on fat content than on moisture content.
2. Cooking frozen meats complicates the cooking process and requires adjustments in procedure.It is possible for roasts to be cooked on the outside but still be frozen in the center. Frozen steaks, too, are more difficult to cook evenly than thawed.
3. Cooking frozen meats requires extra energy,and energy is expensive. A hard-frozen roast may take 3 times as long to cook as a thawed roast.
DONENESS
DEFINITIONS
The meaning of the term doneness depends on whether the cooking method uses dry heat or moist heat.
1. Dry heat.
Meat is “done”when the proteins have reached the desired degree of coagulation (see p.65),as indicated by internal temperature.
2. Moist heat.
Meat is “done”when connective tissues have broken down enough for the meat to be palatable.With a few exceptions,meat cooked by moist heat is always well done.
DRY-HEAT COOKING
The object of dry-heat cooking is to achieve the desired degree of doneness (protein coagulation) while preserving natural tenderness and juiciness.
Degree of Doneness
As meat cooks,its pigments change color. These color changes indicate degrees of doneness.
Red meat (beef and lamb) changes from red to pink to gray or gray-brown.
• Rare:browned surface;thin layer of cooked (gray) meat;red interior
• Medium:thicker layer of gray; pink interior
• Well done:gray throughout
(Of course,there are stages in between.)
White meat (veal and pork) changes from pink or gray-pink to white or off-white. It is generally cooked well done, although many cuts of veal may be considered done when still slightly pink in the center. As explained on page 23, trichinosis is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in the muscle tissue of hogs as well as of some wild animals.In countries in which this disease is a problem,pork must be cooked long enough to eliminate this danger.This parasite is killed at 137°F (58°C), but, to be safe,pork should be cooked to at least 150° to 155°F (66° to 68°C). At this stage,pork is only medium to medium-well done.Some people are happy to eat pork that is still pink in the center,but most people prefer it to be cooked slightly more than this. On the other hand, it is not necessary to cook pork to 185°F (85°C),as older guidelines said. At this temperature,pork is overcooked and dry. For diners who avoid any trace of pink in pork,perhaps the best doneness range is 160° to 170°F (71° to 77°C).
Testing Doneness
Determining doneness is one of the most difficult and critical aspects of meat cooking. Anyone can put a steak on the grill or a roast in the oven. But it takes experience and skill to take it off the fire at the right time. Color change cannot be used by the cook to test doneness because it would be necessary to cut the meat. Piercing the meat and examining the color of the juices is not a reliable method.
Internal Temperature
The tip of the thermometer should be inserted into the center of the thickest part of the flesh, not touching fat or bone.Table 10.3 gives internal temperatures of meats at various degrees of doneness. In general, regional traditions of eating well-done or overcooked meats are decreasing, and more people are eating meat cooked rare. For decades, meats cooked to an internal temperature of 140°F (60°C) were called rare, but by today’s standards,this is more like medium. Current preferences are reflected in the temperatures given in Table 10.3. It should be stated that the USDA and other agencies caution that meats may contain harmful bacteria and parasites.
Although studies are still being done, these agencies suggest that meats should be cooked to at least 145°F (63°C) in order to be completely safe.The USDA requires that beef precooked for food service sale (such as precooked roast beef for sandwiches) be heated to an internal temperature of at least 145°F (63°C) when it is processed.
You may recall from Chapter 2 that cooking foods to lower temperatures can make them safe.Note,however,that according to Table 2.5 on page 29,the lower the final internal temperature, the longer the product must be held at that temperature.Thus, for example,a roast may be brought to an internal temperature of only 130°F (54°C),but it can be considered safe only if it is held at that temperature for at least 112 minutes. Clearly, it is not possible to keep a rare steak at its final temperature for 112 minutes before serving it. According to safety standards,then,rare steaks are not considered safe.Those who prefer their steaks rare, however, are not likely to be swayed by this argument and will continue to request meat done to their liking. Each food service operator has to decide whether to please these customers or to follow food safety guidelines. In any case, whether or not 145°F (63°C) is the lowest safe temperature for cooking most meats,it is not really accurate to call it rare.
Carry-Over Cooking
Internal temperature continues to rise even after the meat is removed from the oven. This is because the outside of roasting meat is hotter than the inside.This heat continues to be conducted into the meat until the heat is equalized throughout the roast. Carry-over cooking can raise internal temperatures from 5°F (3°C) for small cuts to as much as 25°F (14°C) for very large roasts, such as a steamship round.The usual range is 10°F to 15°F (6°C to 8°C) for average roasts.Exact temperature change depends on the size of the cut and on the oven temperature. Remove roasts from the oven when internal temperature is 10° to 15°F (6° to 8°C) below the desired reading. Let the roast stand 15 to 30 minutes before slicing. For example,a beef rib roast cooked rare should be removed from the oven when the thermometer reads about 115° to 120°F (46° to 49°C). Carry-over cooking will bring the temperature to 130°F (54°C) after the roast has stood for 30 minutes.
Touch
The small size of steaks and chops makes using a thermometer impractical.The cook must depend on his or her sense of touch. Meat gets firmer as it cooks. Pressing it lightly with the finger indicates its doneness. Press the center of the lean part, not the fat.
Rare.Feels soft, gives to pressure, though not as soft and jellylike as raw meat.
Medium. Feels moderately firm and resilient,springs back readily when pressed.
Well done.Feels firm,does not give to pressure.
Time-Weight Ratio
Many charts give roasting times per pound of meat.However,these can be approximate only and should be used in estimating and planning cooking times,not in determining doneness.
Many factors other than weight and oven temperature determine cooking time:
1. Temperature of meat before roasting.
2. Amount of fat cover (fat acts as an insulator).
3. Bones (bones conduct heat faster than flesh, so boneless roasts cook more slowly than bone-in roasts of the same weight).
4. Size,type,and contents of oven.
5. Number of times oven door is opened.
6. Shape of the cut (a flat or a long, thin cut cooks more quickly per pound than a round,compact cut).
You can see why roasting requires experience and judgment.To be really accurate and useful,a complete roasting chart that took all variables into consideration,including all meat cuts, sizes,oven temperatures,and so on,would be the size of a small book. Point 6 above is a key point. It is the thickness of a cut, not its weight, that determines cooking time—the time needed for the heat to penetrate to the center. Half a pork loin roasts in about the same time as a whole pork loin,even though it weighs half as much.The thickness is the same.
Perhaps the most useful roasting time charts are those you make yourself.When you regularly roast the same cuts in the same way with the same equipment and find they always take the same length of time,you may use those times as indicators of doneness. Many food service operators have developed charts based on their own practices, and the correct times are indicated on their individual recipe cards.
MOIST-HEAT COOKING
Meat cooked by moist heat is cooked well done and actually beyond well done.Doneness is indicated by tenderness,not by temperature. Piercing with a meat fork is the usual test for doneness.When the prongs of the fork go in and slide out easily,the meat is done. Low temperatures—no higher than simmering—are essential to avoid toughening protein in moist-cooked meats.Oven temperatures of 250° to 300°F (120° to 150°C) are usually sufficient to maintain a simmer.
JUICINESS
Three main factors determine the juiciness—or,more accurately,the perception of juiciness—in cooked meat. Despite the myths about basting with stock and about searing meat to “seal in the juices,”the following are the only factors that have any significant effect on juiciness.
1. Internal fat.
Fat makes meat taste juicy.This is why well-marbled meats taste juicier than lean meats.We understand the health effects of too much fat in the diet,but there is no getting around the fact that high fat content makes meat taste juicier.When lean meats are cooked, other measures (such as using sauces and, especially, avoiding overcooking) are used to increase palatability.
2. Gelatin.
This factor is most important in braised meats.Gelatin,converted from connective tissue,helps bind water molecules and hold them in the meat. Also, the texture of the gelatin improves the texture of the meat in the mouth.This is why braised beef shank tastes so much juicier than braised outside round.
3. Protein coagulation.
As you know,as protein coagulates or is cooked,it breaks down and begins to lose water. The more it is cooked, the more it contracts and forces out moisture.No matter how much you try to sear to “seal in the juices,” this moisture will be lost. The only way to minimize the loss is to avoid overcooking.
Reading: MILK-FED, GRAIN-FED,OR GRASS-FED
The properties of meats are determined, in part, by the diet of the animals. Most of the beef on the market in North America is grainfed, even though grass, not grain, is the natural diet of cattle. Feeding cattle grain enables producers to raise and fatten them for market more quickly than letting them browse on grass does.
Grain-fed beef is tender and has more marbling than grass-fed beef, and it is preferred by most North American consumers. Grass-fed or pastured beef is usually perceived as less tender and less juicy, although it is lower in saturated fat and may have more health benefits. Its flavor is often described as “beefier” than that of grain-fed beef. Grass-fed beef is common in some other countries, such as the beef-eating and -producing nation of Argentina. In North America, producers of pastured beef are campaigning for more consumer recognition. The effect of diet can be seen in other meat animals. Traditionally, the highest-quality veal is considered to be so-called milk-fed veal, more properly called formula-fed.
The meat is light pink in color and mild and delicate in flavor. Calves that are fed solid food or that are allowed into a pasture have darker, more reddish meat with a somewhat beefier flavor. Ethical objections are raised about the raising of formula-fed veal because the animals are penned and not allowed much movement. As for the flavor of milk-fed versus pastured veal, this is a matter of personal preference. The youngest lamb is called spring lamb. It is slaughtered before it begins a diet of solid food, and its meat is light in color and delicate in flavor. Older lamb is darker in color and has a more pronounced flavor. After the age of one year, it is no longer called lamb but mutton, and it has a still darker color and stronger flavor. Little mutton is sold in North America. (In some markets the name mutton may also be used for goat meat, although this is not traditional English usage.)
By Wayne Gisslen in the book "Professional Cooking", John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A, 2007 p.269-276. Edited and adapted to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.
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